4^x

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOLUME XXXVI

1920-1921

ISSUED QUARTERLY

Published for the Society

by the

University of North Carolina

CONTENTS

Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society,

December, 1916, to March, 1920 i

Proceedings of the North Carolina' Academy of Science. . 7

The Theory of Relativity. Andrew H. Patterson 19

A New Method for Laying Out Circular Curves by De-
flections FROM the p. I. T. F. Hickerson 42

A Remarkable Form of Skeletal Element in the Lithistid
Sponges (A Case of Analogical Resemblance). H. V.
Wilson . . • 54

The Turtles of North Carolina. C. S. Brimley 62

A Little-Known Vetch Disease. Frederick A. Wolf 72

Notes on the Mosquito Fauna of North Carolina. Frank-
lin Sherman 86

An Interesting Fertilizer Problem. H. B. Arhuckle 94

Azalea atlantica Ashe and Its Variety luteo-alba n. var.

W. C. Coker 97

A New Species of Achlya. W. C. Coker and /. N. Couch 100

Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society,

May, 1920, TO December, 1920 103

James Jacob Wolfe, 1875-1920 no

The Chemical Behavior of Zirconium. F. P. Venable 115

A Pure Culture Method FOR Diatoms. Bert Cunningham .. . 123

The Occurence of Unlike Ends of the Cells of a Single

Filament of Spirogyra. Bert Cunningham 127

Some Marine Molluscan Shells of Beaufort and Vicinity.

Arthur P. Jacot 129

Notes on the Thelephoraceae of North Carolina. W. C.

Coker 146

DOUBLE NUMBER

VOL. XXXVI SEPTEMBER, 1920 Nos. 1 & 2

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

CONTENTS

Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, De-
cember, 1916, to March, 1920 1

Proceedings of the N. C. Academy of Science 7

The Theory of Relativity. Andrew H. Patterson 19

A New Method for Laying Out Circular Curves by Deflec-
tions FROM the p. L T. F. Hickerson 42

A Remarkable Form of Skeletal Element in the Lithistid
Sponges (a Case of Analogical Resemblance). H. V.
Wilson 54

The Turtles of North Carolina. C. S. Brimley 62

A Little Known Vetch Disease. Frederick A. Wolf 72

Notes on the Mosquito Fauna of North Carolina. Frank-
lin Sherman 86

An Interesting Fertilizer Problem. H. B. Arhuckle 94

Azalea atlantica Ashe and Its Variety luteo-alba n.
VAR. T^. C. Coker 97

A New Species of Achlya. W. C. Coker and /. N. Couch 100

ISSUED QUARTERLY

CHAPEL HILL, N. C, U. S. A.

ENTERED AT THE POSTOFFICE AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER

The Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

W. C. COKER, President.

J. M. BELL, Vice-President.

A. W. HOBBS, F. P. VENABLE,

Secretary and Treasurer. Permanent Secretary.

Editors of the Journal:

"W. C. COKER.
COLLIER COBB. J. M. BELL.

JouBNAii OF THE Elisha Mitchell SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY — Quarterly.
Price $2.00 per year; single numbers, 50 cents. Most numbers of former
volumes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Permanent
Secretary, at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

In addition to original papers on scientific subjects this Journal pub-
lishes the Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, and the
Proceedings of the North Carolina Academy of Science, as well as abstracts
of papers on scientific subjects published elsewhere by members of the
Faculty of the University of North Carolina.

Published for the Society

by the

University of North Carolina

PLATE 1

^;

/

AZALEA ATLAXTICA. (left)

AZALEA ATLANTICA VAR. LUTEO-Al-BA. niutit)
i Natural Size

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

Volume XXXVI SEPTEMBER, 1920 Nos. 1 and 2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY, DECEMBER, 1916, TO MARCH, 1920.

225th Meeting — December 12, 1916 m'", ,

A. H. Patterson — Shrapnel in the Making. ''■ '

J. M. Bell — Some Recent Work in Crystal Structure.

226th Meeting — February 20, 1917
H. H. Williams — The Logic of Science.
Collier Cobb — Recent Changes in Currituck Sound (Illustrated).

227th Meeting— March 13, 1917
H. R. ToTTEN — Growing Mushrooms in Pure Culture.
J. S. Holmes — Some Notes on the Occurrence of Landslides.

Business Meeting — September 26, 1917
Election of Officers :

President — J. G. Beard,
Vice-President — J. M. Bell.
Permanent Secretary — F. P. Venable.
Recording Secretary — W. W. Rankin, Jr.

Editorial Committee — W. C. Coker, chairman ; Collier Cobb, M.
H. Stacy.

228th Meeting — October 9, 1917
c^ P. H. Daggett — Modern Tendencies in Engineering Education.
en F. P. Venable — The Luminosity of Insects — A Chemical Phenom-

Oi

CD

enon.

[1]

2 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

229th Meeting— November 13, 1917
Collier Cobb — Cave Dwellings (Did their Relation to Geolofji/.

230th Meeting — December 11, 1917.
W. deB. MacNider — The Stahintu of the Acid-Base Equilibriioii of the

Blood in Animals of Different Ages.
Archibald Henderson — The Role of Pascal's Theorem in Modern

Geometry.

231st Meeting— February 26, 1918
H. V. Wilson — Contributions of French Scientists as Brought out at

the San Francisco Exposition.
H. W. Chase — Some Modern Tendencies in Psychological Thought.

232d Meeting— March 12, 1918
W. C. CoKER — Corn {Illustrated) .
A. S. Wheeler — The Production of Toluol.

233d Meeting— April 9, 1918
J. W. Lasley — Some Everyday Problems.

F. P. Venable — Luminescence and Radioactivity of the Zircons.
P. H. Daggett — Demonstration of a New Telephone Signaling System.

Business Meeting — October, 1918
The old ofi&cers were re-elected for the year 1918-19, during which
period the regular meetings were suspended.

234th Meeting— April 15, 1919

Archibald Henderson — Some Points in Gunnery for Heavy Ar-
tillery.

F. P. Venable — The North Carolina Academy of Science.

235th Meeting— May 13, 1919

W. deB. MacNider — Influence of the Age of an Organism on Regen-
eration.

A. S. Wheeler — New Napthalene Dyes.

J. M. Bell — Investigations on the Nitrotoluenes.

1920] Proceedings of Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 3

Election of Officers:

President — W. C. Coker.

Vice-President — J. M. Bell. ♦

Permanent Secretary — F. P. Venable.

Recording Secretary — A. W. Hobbs. *

Editorial Committee — W. C. Coker, chairman; J. M. Bell, Collier
Cobb.

236th Meeting — November 11, 1919.
H. V. Wilson — Some Crustacea of the North Carolina Coast.
F. P. Venable and D. H. Jackson — Reactions of Hydrochloric and
Hydrobromic Acids with Potassium Permanganate.

237th Meeting— December 9, 1919
J. N. Couch — A New Species of Water Mold with Ohservations on

Fertilization.
T. F. Hickerson — A New Method For Laying Out Curves in Road
Location.

238th Meeting— January 13, 1920.
J. J. Wolfe — The Plankton of Chesapeake Bay.

The speaker presented in brief form the results obtained in a
plankton survey of these waters, made by the speaker in collaboration
with Prof. Bert Cunningham, the object of which was to throw some
light on the kind and abundance of organisms that may serve as fish
food. The collections on which the work was based were made by
the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.

The details of collection and the methods employed in the study
were explained at some length. Charts and tables compiled from the
data gathered were presented and the conclusions drawn which may
be summarized as follows :

1. The volume of matter suspended in the water bears little or
no relation to the number of organisms present.

2. There is a gradual increase in volume with increasing depth
due in part to detritus and in part to an increase in organisms.

3. There is a great variation in number of organisms in different
parts of the Bay on the same day and at the same depths, the cause of
which is not determined. Locations and temperature are ruled out as
causes. The data, too meagre as yet, point to the tides as a possible
explanation.

4 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Septeinher

4. There are two crests during the year, April-May and Sep-
tember-October, due to a tremendous increase of individuals belonging
to only ojie or two species rather than as might be expected to a gen-
eral increase in all species represented.

5. There seems to be a definite relation between temperature and
number of organisms, the optimum lying between 46° and 55° F.

6. There is a noteworthy absence of Copcpods certainly due to
some error in the method of collection.

7. Neither ''count" nor "volume" gives an absolutely true in-
dication of food available. These two in connection with "incinera-
tion" would probably give a more correct idea.

239th Meeting— February 10, 1920
F. P. Venarle — The Chemistry of Zirconium.

This paper will be published in full in this Journal in a later
number.

W. F. Prouty — Notes on the Geology of a Portion of Clay County,
Alabama.

The fundamental or metamorphic rocks of Clay County, Alabama,
have been generally considered of Precambrian age. There is nothing
published concerning the age of the associated intrusives. Dr. Smith,
of the University of Alabama, has demonstrated the Carboniferous
age of a small area in the phyllites of western Clay County. The
speaker has recently widely extended, in the phyllite belt, the area
of known Carboniferous rocks and has demonstrated the post Car-
boniferous age of the belt of green schists which everywhere separate
the phyllites on the west from the mica schists on the east.

The workable flake graphite ores or the mica schist belt are shown
to be of epigenetic origin and the association of the ores with the more
quartzitic and coarse-grained, originally sedimentary beds, leads to
the conclusion that the graphitic ores resulted from the metamorphism
of petroliferous strata.

240th Meeting — March 9, 1920
J. F. Dashiell — Double Habit Formation by Animals, Children, and
Adults.

The problem approached was that as to the relative efficiency of
learning two habits by practicing them alternately (the Alternate

19^:0] Proceedings of Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 5

Method) or by getting one to some extent fixed before practicing the
other (the Complete Method). Data were obtained by the study of the
learning of mazes by rats, of mazes by children, and of mazes by adults ;
then the scope was extended to include the formation of another pair
of perceptual-motor habits, card sorting, and further still to include a
pair of habits involving very little of the motor element, addition.

The particular technique of the different experiments was inten-
tionally varied considerably: (a) in temporal distribution of trials;
(b) in stage at which shift was made from one to the other habit
by the Complete Method; (c) in arrangement of controls— division of
subject into groups; (d) in methods of scoring; (e) in incentives used,

(f) in subjects' previous familiarity with the habits to be learned;

(g) in their knowledge of the number and order of the habits to be
learned; (h) in their knowledge of the nature of the problem inves-
tigated. Thus, the general results found may be considered as inde-
pendent of particular details of technique and to be of general bearing.

For results, it was found that in all the forms of double habit for-
mation studied, learning by the Complete Method was more economical
than learning b}^ the Alternate Method. This was indicated in the
different sets of experiments in terms of the different criteria of effici-
ency respectively applicable. They included: (a) number of trials
necessary to fix a habit; (b) degree of regularity in improvement ; (c)
average amounts of scores on individual trials; (d) rate of accelera-
tion of improvement.

The complete paper will appear in an early number of The Psy-
chological Review.

J. B. Bullitt — Report on Autopsies on 25 Cases of Influenza Pneu-
monia.

Extensive cutaneous emphysema v^as encountered in one case.
Firm, fibrous pleural adhesions existed in six cases, in four of which
the lungs showed old scars of apparently healed tuberculosis while
one showed fibrinous exudate on the pleura, four of these exudates
being thick and shaggy. In three of these there was serous effusion ;
in two, purulent effusion. All cases exhibited the lobular type of
pneumonia. In seven there was also distinct lobar consolidation,
the lobular process in these being but slightly evident. Numerous
bronchiectatic abscesses occurred in four cases, while in four others
(three of them associated with labor consolidation) there was massive

6 Journal of the ^Mitchell Society [Septemher

necrosis involving tlie whole or the greater part of a lobe. .Meningitis
existed in five eases — two due to the meningoccocus, one to the nienin-
goeocciis and pneumococcus together, while in two the organism was
not discovered. In all cases of more than one week duration more or
less extensive organization has occurred. Two men who lived about
five weeks died suddenly during apparent convalescence. The lungs
showed little evidence of active inflammation, but organization has
obliterated the greater part of the pulmonary tissue. These seem
analogous to those cases of nephritis in which the repair process
strangles the glomeruli and kills a patient who may have survived the
original toxemia.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINETEENTH MEETING OF THE
NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, HELD AT
STATE COLLEGE, WEST RALEIGH, N. C, APRIL 30-MAY
1, 1920.

The executive committee met in the offices of Prof. Z. P. Metcalf
April 30, at 12 :00 M., with the following members present : President
A. H. Patterson, Secretary R. W.' Leiby and member Z. P. Metcalf.
The secretary made a preliminary report on finances, membership,
etc., following which the policies of the Academy and other questions
were discussed. A total of 28 new members were elected as follows :

JosiAH S. Babb, Asst. in Geology, U. N. C, Chapel Hill.

Dr. H. p. Barret, Physician, Charlotte,

Wm. Hande Browne, Prof. Elec. Engr., State College, West
Raleigh.

Dr. J. B. Bullitt, Prof. Path., U. N. C, Chapel Hill.

J. N. Couch, Asst. in Botany, U. N. C, Chapel Hill.

Dr. J. B. Derieux, Dept. Physics, State College, W. Raleigh.

A. A. Dixon, Dept. Physics, State College, W. Raleigh.

Paul Gross, Ph. D., Chemist, Trinity College, Durham.

Miss Pattie J. Groves, Instr. Science, Durham High School, Dur-
ham.

V, R. Haber, Asst. Investigations, Ent., State Dept. Agr., Raleigh.

Dr. J. 0. Halverson, Expert Animal Nutrition, State Dept. Agr.,
Raleigh.

C. M. Heck, Dept. Physics, State College, W. Raleigh.

Miss Alma Holland, Asst. in Botany, U. N. C, Chapel Hill.

J. E. IvEY, Poultry Path., State College, W. Raleigh.

S. G. Lehman, Asst. Plant Path., State College, W. Raleigh.

A. L. Lugn, Prof. Physics and Chemistry, Lenoir College, Hickory.

Dr. Wm. F. Prouty, Stratigraphic GeoL, U. N. C, Chapel Hill.

R. F. Revson, Chemist, 210 S. Tryon St., Charlotte.

G. H. Satterfield, Trinity College, Durham.

Prof. M. E. Sherwin, Prof. Soils, State College, W. Raleigh.

I. V. Shunk, Asst. Prof. Botany, State College, W. Raleigh.

M. R. Smith, Extension Ent., State Dept. Agr., Raleigh.

Ira W. Smithey, U. N. C, Chapel Hill.

[7]

8 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Septemher

Haywood M. Taylor, U. N. C, Chapel Hill.

Dr. Walter F. Taylor, Asso. Prof. Bacter. and Hyo-iene, W. F.

C, Wake Forest.
Dr. B. W. Wells, Prof. Botany, State College, W. Raleigh.
C. B. Williams, Dean, State College, W. Raleigh.
J. H. Williams, Instr. Zool. & Ent., State College, W. Raleigh.
The executive committee then adjourned.

At 2 :15 P. M. the first session of the annual meeting was called
to order by Pres. A. H. Patterson, who made some remarks chiefly
concerning the time allowance for presentation of papers. The fol-
lowing committees were then appointed : Auditing — C. S. Brimley,
T. F. Hickerson, F. A. Wolf; Nominations— eJ. J. Wolfe, W. C. Coker,
W. A. Withers; Resolutions — C. W. Edwards, H. B. Arbuckle, Miss
Mary Petty.

Papers were then called for, the reading and discussion of which
was carried on until 5 :00 P.M. when the session was adjourned.

The Academy reconvened at 8 :]5 P. M. to listen to the Presidential
address by A. H. Patterson on "The Einstein Theory of Relativity."
Previous to the presidential address, the Academy was formality wel-
comed by Dr. W. C. Riddick, President of the College, the response
being made by Professor Patterson.

The Academy was again called to order on Saturday morning at
nine o'clock for a business session. The Secretary read the minutes
of the previous meeting, which were approved. The Treasurer's re-
port was read and referred to the Auditing Committee. The matter
of increasing dues was discussed. Professor Metcalf presented the pro-
position of the Academy affiliating with the American Association
for the Advancement of Science. This was freely discussed and re-
ferred by motion to the Executive Committee with power to act.
The question of securing State support for the Academy in the sum
of $500.00 to $1,000.00 was discussed and motion was adopted to refer
to Executive Committee to look into matter and if found practicable
to authorize the President to appoint a committee to present the matter
to the next Legislature. The committee on Science Instruction in
the High Schools as related to the College, was continued with one
change in personnel, the substitution of Mr. Bert Cunningham for Dr.
J. J. Wolfe. Motion was then adopted, following pro and
con discussion, that the Secretary be allowed ten per cent of all
moneys collected by him for the Academj^ effective next year.

lyW] Proceedings of the Academy of Science 9

Motion adopted that we accept the invitation of Wake Forest Col-
lege to meet there next year.

The nominating committee then made its report as follows :

President— Z. P. Metcalf, W. Raleigh.

Vice-President— J. M. Bell, Chapel Hill.

Secretary-Treasurer — R. W. Leiby, Raleigh.

Additional members Executive Committee : H. R. Totten, R. N.
Wilson, F. A. Wolfe.

Report was adopted and Secretary authorized to cast the ballot.

Motion was then adopted that the following telegram be sent past
President and Secretary, E. W. Gudger:

"The North Carolina Academy of Science in annual session assembled, deeply
appreciating the splendid constructive service which you rendered her through
so many years, sends you greeting and begs that you accept her thanks for this
most devoted service which we well know was a labor of love, and sincerely hopes
that events may so shape themselves that you may at an early date again actively
share in her work and achievement. ' '

Following the business session the presentation of papers was con-
tinued before the joint session of the Academy and Chemists until
12 :30.

At 1 :30 the Academy reconvened for the further presentation of
papers. During this session the report of the Auditing Committee
was adopted which found the books correct and suggested the payment
of the nominal sum of $5.00 to the Secretary's stenographer for
clerical work. The report of the Resolutions Committee was then read
and adopted as follows :

Resolved, That we, the members of the North Carolina Academy of Science,
sorrow because of the demise of our member and fellow worker, Mrs. Fannie
Carr Bivins, head of the Science Department of the Durham City Schools, and
express our recognition of her unselfish and enthusiastic work as student and
teacher which made her life such a notable contribution to the advancement of
science in her community.

That we express our hearty appreciation of the kindness, courtesy, and co-
operation of the President and Faculty of the N. C. State College of Agriculture
and Engineering on the occasion of the nineteenth annual meeting of the Academy
and especially of the generous and hospitable manner in which we have indi-
vidually been entertained.

Following the completion of the program the Academy adjourned
sine die at 3:15 P.M.

10 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

Report of Treasurer, July 1, 1919-April 28, 1920

Keceipts Expenditures

From former treasurer $ 128.67 Eubber stamp $ 1.00

Dues (back) 5.00 Postage and envelopes 13. 72

Dues (current) 56.00 Stationery 5.25

Dues (advanced) 16.00 Multigraph letters (3) 3.00

Initiation fees 28.00 Printing programs 16.50

Savings acct. Int 3.32 Incidentals 1.20

Total receipts .$ 236.99 $ 40.67

Total expenditures 40.67

$ 196.32

Balance April 28, 1920 $ 196.32

Balance May 31, 1920 (all bills paid) $ 156.09

Following is present membership of the Academy. Those marked
with asterisk were in attendance at meeting :

Andrews, W. H Chapel Hill

*Arbuckle, H. B Davidson

Babb, Josiah S •■ ■••• Chapel Hill

Bahnson, F. F Winaton-Salem

Balderston, Mark Guilford College

Barret, H. P Charlotte

Beardslee, H. C Asheville

*Bell, J. M Chapel Hill

Binf ord, Eaymond Guilford College

Bonney, Miss F. C Hartsville, S. C.

Bottum, Miss F. E Ealeigh

Brewer, C. E Ealeigh

*Brimley, C. S Ealeigh

Brimley, H. H Ealeigh

*Browne, Wm. Hande W. Ealeigh

Bruner, S. C Santiago do las Vesgas, Cuba

Bullitt, J. B Chapel Hill

Bynum, J. C Chapel Hill

Cain, Wm Chapel Hill

Clapp, S. C Swaunanoa

*Cobb, Collier Chapel Hill

Cobb, Wm. B Columbia

*Coker, W. C Chapel Hill

Collett, E. W Willard

Coman, J. H Durham

*Couch, J. N Chapel Hill

1920] Proceedings of the Academy of Science 11

Cimiiingham, Bert Madison, Wis.

Davis, H. T Chapel Hill

*Derieux, J. B W. Ealeigh

*Dixon, A. A W. Ealeigh

Dixon, L. F Weaverville

Dobbins, C. N Chapel Hill

DoAvning, J. S Elsmere, Del.

*Edwards, C. W Durham

Edgerton, F. N., Jr Athens, Ga.

Farmer, C. M Troy, Ala.

*Gross, Paul Durham, N. C.

*Groves, Miss Pattie J Durham

Gudger, E. W Greensboro

*Haber, V. R Raleigh

*Halverson, J. O Raleigh

Hatley, C. C Durham

*Heck, C. M West Raleigh

Henderson, Archibald Chapel Hill

Hewlett, C. W Greensboro

*Hiekerson, T. F Chapel Hill

Hobbs, A. W Chapel Hill

Hoffman, S. W Statesville

*Holland, Miss Alma Chapel Hill

Holmes, J. S Chapel Hill .

Ives, J. D Charleston, S. C.

*Ivey, J. E West Raleigh

Johnson, E. D Asheville

*Kilgore, B. W R^leigji

*Krausz, H. B Raleigh

Lake, J. L Wake Forest

Lanneau, J. F ..Wake Forest

*Lehman, S. G West Raleigh

*Leiby, R. W Raleigli

Lewis, R. H Raleigh

Lugn, A. L Hickory

Lyon, Miss Mary Red Springs

*Marion, S. J Raleigh

Markham, Blackwell Chapel Hill

Mendenhall, Miss Gertrude W Greensboro

*Metcalf, Z. P West Raleigh

Nowell, J. W Wake Forest

^Patterson, A. H Chapel Hill

*Pegram, W. H Durham

Petty, Miss Mary Greensboro

*Pillsbury, J. P West Raleigh

*Plummer, J. K Raleigh

Poteat, W. L Wake Forest

12 Journal op^ the Mitchell Society {Srpffmhpr

Pratt, J. H Chapel Hill

*Prouty, Wm. F •• Chapel Hill

Randolph, E. O College Station, Texas

Randolph, Mrs. E. O College Station, Texas

Rankin, W. S Raleigh

*Revson, R. F •• Charlotte

*Rhodes, L. B Raleigh

*Riddick, W. C West Raleigh

*Robinson, Miss Mary Greensboro

*Satterfield, G. H West Raleigh

*Saville, Thorndyke Chapel Hill

Seymore, Miss Mary F Greensboro

Shaffer, Miss Blanch E Greensboro

*Sherman, Franklin Raleigh

Sherrill, Miss Mary L •• Greensboro

*Sher\vin, M. E West Raleigh

*Shore, C. A Raleigh

*Shunk, I. V West Raleigh

Smith, J. E Ames, Iowa

*Smith, M. R Tallulah, La.

Smithey, Ira W Chapel Hill

*Spencer, Herbert West Raleigh

Stiles, C. W Wilmington

Taylor, Haywood M Chapel Hill

Taylor, Walter F Wake Forest

*Totteu, H. R Chapel Hill

Vann, Miss Fannie E Durham

Venable, F. P Chapel Hill

*Wells, B. W West Raleigh

*Wheeler, A. S •■ Chapel Hill

*Williams, C. B West Raleigh

*Williams, J. H "West Raleigh

*Williams, L. F West Raleigh

*Wilson, H. V Chapel Hill

* Wilson, R. N Durham

*Winters, R. Y West Raleigh

*Withers, W. A West Raleigh

*Wolf, F. A West Raleigh

*Wolfe, J. J Durham, N. C.

Total membership, 113.

The following: papers were presented at the meeting- :

The Einstein Theori; of Relativity. A. H. Patterson. (Presidential
address).
Appears in full in this issue.

].9,20] Proceedings of the Academy of Science 13

A New Method for Laying out Circular Curves. T. F. Hickerson.

Appears in full in this issue as a new method for laying out
circular curves by deflections from the P. I,

A Remarkable Form of Skeletal Element in the Lithistid Sponges {A
Case of Analogical Resemblance. H. V. Wilson.

Appears in full in this issue.

Animal Locomotion. H. H. Brimley.

This paper treats of the means used in moving from place to place
bj^ the fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The species
in each class are artificially grouped according to their main locomotion
characteristics.

Together with what may be called their normal methods of pro-
gression, the paper treats of fish that can walk and mammals that
cannot ; of mammals that can fly and birds without such powers ; of
reptiles that possess the power of volplaning through the air; of fish
that travel while lying on the side ; of mammals that use three or
five members in their movements ; of others that spend their lives
upside down ; of fish that possess the power of movement through the
air ; of birds that swim and dive while young and lose such powers on
becoming adult ; of mammals possessing exceptional locomotive powers
both on land and in the water, and of birds that walk, fly, swim, dive
and climb.

Single Spore Cultures of Coprinus radiatus. H. R. Totten.

Reports the growth to maturity of Coprinus radiatus Fr. from a
single spore. Mycelia from a spore germinated in broth of horse
manure, and transferred to the following media, formed mature
plants : Horse manure, cow manure, horse manure agar, corn meal
agar, and peas. A review was given of Mile. Bensaude's thesis on
"Sexualite chez les Easidomycete, " Paris, 1918, in which she proves
that Coprinus fimetarius is a dioecious fungus. Coprinus radiatus was
compared with Coprinus fimetarius and was shown to be monoecious.
The hyphae of Coprinus radiatus also lacks the clamped connections
so commonly seen on hyphae and always seen on the hyphae of Co-
prinus fimetarius before the formation of mature plants.

14 JouRXAL OF THE MiTCiiELL SociETY [Septemher

Genera of Lower Basidiomycetes not Before Reported from North
America. W. C. Coker.

Reports the occurrence in Chapel Hill of three Genera; all grow-
ing on wood as saprophytes, and forming small pustules or expanded,
resupinate layers. They are as follows:

Saccohlastia Moller. A remarkable genus with elongated basidia
divided across into four cells as in the rusts ; and arising in a peculiar
way from the tip of a pendant pear-shaped sac. Three species have
been reported, two from South Brazil and one from Poland. Our
plant is considered a variety of S. ovispora Moller from South Brazil.

Platygloea Schroeter. Two species were found on Crepe Myrtle,
both of which seem new. About nine others have been described from
Europe and the tropics. Our plants seem nearest Helicogloea Lager-
heiini Pat. which is usually considered as not generically distinct from
Platygloea. Our species have small, crowded basidia borne in corymbs
and two-celled bj' a cross partition.

Sirohasidium Moller. In this genus the basidia are borne in chains
and are divided into two cells by an oblique wall or into four cells
by longitudinal walls. Three species have been described, all fi-om
South America (one from Brazil, two from Equador). Our plant
agrees well with the one from Brazil, S. Brefeldia)ui))i Moller.

Attention was also called to the Genus Septobasidiioii, which is well
represented in America, but in which the basidia have been misunder-
stood.

The Turtles of North Carolina. C. S. Brimley.
Appears in full in this issue.

The Life History of a Gall-Making Psyllid {Pachypsylla mamma
Riley). Lantern. Dr. B. W. Wells.
Oviposition on under side of young hackberry leaf. Nymph mi-
grates to upper side of leaf where galls are initiated near the principal
veins. Nymph grows very slowly at first while gall on the other
hand grows very rapidly. Usualh' but one insertion of the mouth-
parts into the leaf tissue is made, the insect keeping its position for
an extended period. The nymph escapes from the gall in the fall, the
adults appearing immediately afterward. These overwinter in bark
crevices or ground debris.

19:^0] Proceedings of the Academy of Science 15

Dreams and their Causes. C. S. Brimley.

Paper gives concisely the author's opinion as to the causes of
dreams, and illustrates the same by examples from his own personal
experiences.

A Little-Knoivn Vetch Disease. Frederick A. Wolf.
Appears in full in this issue.

Notes on the Mosquito Fauna of North Carolina. Franklin Sherman.
Appears in full in this issue.

The Larger Corn Stalk-Borer {Diatrae zeacolella Dyar). Lantern.
R. W. Leiby.

Brief references to life-history as determined over a period of 5
years in North Carolina. Discussion of control measures which in-
cluded late planting of corn and destruction of overwintering larvae
by plowing out corn stubble in fall.

An Interesting Fertilizer Frohlem. H. B. Arbuckle.
Appears in full in this issue.

A Phenomenal Shoot. Dr. B. W. Wells.

A shoot found by Mrs. B. W. Wells near Raleigh, N. C, which
measures 19 feet, 5 inches in length, was exhibited. It had grown
from the stump of a beheaded tree of Paulownia tomentosa during the
season of 1919. The base is 7.75 inches in circumference 2.50 inches
diameter. The shoot possessed 20 internodes, the longest of which
measures 19 inches.

A Peculiar Mycorhiza-forming Rhipzopogon on the Roots of Pine.

H. R. TOTTEN.

Specimens of a species of Rhizopogon were shown on the roots of
Pimis Taeda and Pinus echinata. This fungus attacks the young
rootlets, forming a mycorhizal covering about each rootlet in a cluster.
The fungal coats of several rootlets soon coalesce into a light creamy

16 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

mass of various forms and sizes. The fungus attacks the pine tissue,
completely destroys the mass of enclosed rootlets, and remains lightly
attached to the root. Many irregular cavities lined with basidia and
spores are formed. The interior becomes a dark jelly mass, and the
tougher coat later also breaks down.

Effect of Fertilizers on Germination and Seedling Growth of Conn
and Cotton. M. E. Sherwin.

This paper shows the effect of fertilizers on time required for
germination and on rate of seedling growth of corn and cotton grown
in galvanized pans 3i/^ inches each way. These results are in part
in confirmation of field observations.

Heavy applications of soluble mineral fertilizers cause the greater
delay in germination. Organic fertilizers cause the greater injury to
the seedlings. Where germination seems to be poor as determined by
the per cent of seeds which have "come up" the trouble will usually
be found to be due to root injury where organic fertilizers are used
and to inability of the seed to absorb sufficient water where mineral
fertilizers are used.

To obviate the difficulty in germination and the root injur.y from
organic fertilizers no fungicidal treatment has availed. Injury is less
severe when the fertilizer is well mixed with the soil but to wholly
obviate these troubles the fertilizer should be applied to the soil a week
in advance of planting the seed. The injury appears to be much less
in soil containing abundance of acid organic matter than in ordinary
sand clay soils. The injury appears worse at high temperatures than
at low temperatures.

The viability of the seed does not seem to have been impaired by
contact with the soil solution containing sufficient nitrate of soda to
prevent germination in two weeks' time.

Increasing the quantity of nitrate of soda has the same effect on
rate of germination as decreasing the amount of soil moisture.

Borax, either alone or in trona-potash, is decidedly harmful to
germination. Very small amounts of borax cause almost complete
chlorosis of corn seedlings.

1920] Proceedings of the Academy op Science 17

Some Investigations on the Compounds Isolated from the Polypores.
Joseph T. Maddox and Raymond Binford.

There has been little or no investigation done on the chemical
analysis and isolation of the various compounds present and obtainable
from any Polyporus. An investigation was made this past winter
towards isolating under various conditions as many compounds as
possible. Some eleven different compounds were obtained, which,
owing to the lack of proper laboratory equipment, are as yet uniden-
tified. This paper is only intended to give an account of the methods
used and a study of the physical properties of each compound isolated.

Netv Ethers. A. S. Wheeler and S. C. Smith.

A new group of ethers has been derived from chloral. The addition
product obtained by the action of one mole of chloral upon one mole
of m-nitroaniline is boiled with an alcohol. A molecule of water splits
off and an ether of strong crystallizing power is obtained. These
ethers are sensitive to acids but stable towards alkalies. The reaction
with p-nitroaniline is best carried out by first making the chloral alco-
holate and then treating this with the amine. The series of ethers
under preparation include the three nitroanilines and methyl, ethyl,
n-propyl, n-butyl and isoamjd alcohols.

p-Cyinenc, A New Solvent. A. S. Wheeler.

p-Cymene is now produced on a much larger scale than formerly
since it is so easily obtained from spruce turpentine. It becomes,
therefore, a useful solvent for high temperatures, its boiling point
being 176.5°. It is a colorless hydrocarbon of the benzene series and
is to be preferred where possible to such colored solvents as aniline and
nitrobenzene and ill-smelling ones as pyridin. The solubility of a num-
ber of compounds of a wide range of types has been determined.

A Color Reaction for p-Cymene. A. S. Wheeler.

In p-cymene obtained from spruce turpentine are one or more
impurities which give a color reaction with p-anisidine. The solid
p-anisidine may be used or a solution in pure cymene. In samples
where the cymene is still yellowish the coloration is very pronounced
and is really not needed. The immediate coloration is pale yellow,
deep yellow, brown or red depending on the degree of impurity.

18 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Septentber

Further in all cases the color deepens very noticeably in succeeding
hours. If no coloration occurs in the diffused light of the laboratory
within two hours the cymene is pure.

The following papers were read but no copies or abstracts fur-
nished :

Some Biological Aspects of the Tidal Zone Region of the North Car-
olina Coast. Z. P. Metcalf.

Recent Growth and Depletion of Sea-heaches on the North Carolina
Coast. Collier Cobb.

Electro-end osmosis of Clays. Thorndyke Saville.

Effect of Borax on Plant Growth and Notes on a Method for its Quan-
titative Determination in Fertilizers. Oscar J. Theis, Jr., and
H. B. Arbuckle.

Dyestuff Situation in the United States. R. F. Revson.
Agricidtural Geology (Read by title). John E. Smith.
The Wing Venation of the Heteroptera. Herbert Spencer.
Vitamines — A Review. W. A. Withers.

Further Studies on the Melting Points of the Nitrotoluenes. J. M.
Bell.

A List of the Cicadellidae Taken at Swannanoa, North Carolina. 7i.

P. Metcalf and Herbert Osborn.
The Conductivity of Nonaqueous Solutions. Paul Gross.
Behind the Barrier Beaches from Boston to Beaufort. Collier Cobb.
Some Neiv Types of Distillation Apparatus. Paul Gross.

R. W. Leiby, Secretary.

THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY*
By Andrew H. Patterson

The idea of Relativity is not new. It was presented by the old
philosophers, and has been a constant part of philosophical doctrine to
this day. AH of our knowledge is relative. Especially is this true of
our knowledge of time and space. We know time only at a certain
place ; we observe the position of a point only at a certain time. To
say that an observation or measurement was made at a given time is
useless and meaningless until we have stated the place, — Greenwich or
Washington or Tokio, — to which the time is referred. Places of stars
in \he Nautical Almanac are given only for the epoch, or time, stated
at the head of the page, and corrections must be applied for later
dates. It is quite true to say that we do not kuow the exact place of a
star unless we know the exact time. Important dates in Assyrian
history have been fixed because of the record of a total eclipse of the
sun which was seen in the streets of the city of Nineveh at half -past
nine on a certain morning of a certain month of a certain year in the
reign of Jeroboam the Second. By calculating when this eclipse must
have occurred at that particular place at that time of the morning,
we at once link up the Assyrian era to our own, and can translate their
time into ours. Time without position in space has no more inde-
pendent existence than the direction "vertically upwards", for ex-
ample, which changes with every point on the earth's surface.

But to fix the place of a point we need a system of axes to which
we can refer its position by means of co-ordinates. The latitude and
longitude of a ship are the two co-ordinates which fix its position on
the surface of the ocean. If the point is to be fixed in space, three
co-ordinates are needed, and if we can conceive of a four-dimensional
space, four co-ordinates will be necessary to specify the position of any
point therein.

It is immaterial whether we choose rectangular axes, or oblique
axes, or whether we use polar co-ordinates or some other system, pro-
vided that the position of the point arrived at by any system is the
same. Again, we can transform the co-ordinates of a point in one sys-
tem of axes into its co-ordinates in another system of axes by appro-
priate mathematical operations, and since a line is a series of points,

* Presidential Address, delivered before the North Carolina Academy of Science, at the
North Carolina State College of Agriculture and Engineering, Raleigh, April 30, 1920.

[19 ]

20 Journal of the Mitchell k50C1etv [^September

we can also transform the equation of a line with reference to one
set of axes into another equation representing the same line referred
to another set of axes. The only criterion for the validity of such a
transformation is that the length, curvature and position of the line
as given' by the two equations, each referred to its own set of nxes,
shall be the same. And this point is to be emphasized: wliilc we
may not be able to conceive of a four-dimensional space, the mathema-
ticians find no difficulty in getting the appropriate equations referred
to four rectangular axes, and of course containing four co-ordinates,
and these equations are as mathematicall.v true and consistent as
though we habitually used four dimensions in ordinary life.

But in using a set of axes, they must either be fixed, or els« their
position and motion must in turn be referred to some so-called "frame
of reference" that is fixed, and the attempt to find such a frame of
reference led to the modern theory of Relativity. Of course the earli-
est use of co-ordinate systems was in connection with Astronomy, and
the first frame of reference was the supposedly fixed Earth, which
Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer who lived in the second century
A. D., believed to be the center of a universe of planets and stars which
revolved about it, and he referred their positions and motions to the
stationary earth as his frame of reference. It is true that four hun-
dred years earlier Aristotle and Aristarchus pointed out that by the
laws of relative motion the movements of the celestial bodies could be
equally well explained l)y a stationary sphere of stars and a revolving
eartli, ])ut the learned men of the succeeding centuries followed Ptol-
eni}', and it was not until the middle of the sixteenth century that
Copernicus put forth again the theor.v that the starry sky, or "eighth
sphere", should be considered at rest, and the sun also as its motion-
less center, while to this fixed frame of reference should be referred
the motions of planets, comets, earth Pud moon. But since this trans-
formation of axes — this change in the frame of reference — involved
the demotion of the earth from its former proud position of center of
the universe to a modest place among the minor planets, Copernicus'
theory was bitterly opposed by theologians, both Protestant and Ro-
man, on the idea that the new order involved great danger to the teach-
ings of the church. Martin Luther denounced Copernicus roundly
as an "upstart astrologer" who showed a lack of "public decency"
in maintaining that neither the sun lior the "eighth sphere" revolved
about the earth. But the new theory had come to stay, for it explained

1!^:^0] The Theory op Relativity 21

clearly and simply the cause of the loops in the paths of the planets,
the phases of Venus and the Moon, and the motions of planets, satel-
lites and comets.

It led very soon to the discovery of Kepler's laws and the epoch-
making work of Newton, including the development of the Newtonian
mechanics and the differential and integral calculus. Two hundred years
after Copernicus, Herschel again upset our frame of reference, for he
showed that the whole Solar System is moving through space with a
velocity of something like fifteen miles a second in the approximate
direction of the star Vega, and that in addition the "fixed stars" are
anything but fixed. All of them seem to be travelling in different
directions through space with enormous velocities. One of them, in-
deed, No. 1830 in Groombridge's catalogue, has such a large proper
motion that it is called the ' ' runaway star. ' '

So our fixed frame of reference again fails us, and in our attempt
to find another we adopted the theory of a stationar^^ ethei* filling all
space, and affording the medium in which light waves are propagated.
Such a medium seemed necessary to explain the experiments in optics,
electrostatics, magnetism and electromagnetism, and since the same
kind of medium with the same properties was needed for the explana-
tion of phenomena in each of the branches of physics just named.
Maxwell pointed out that this fact constituted strong evidence for the
existence of the ether.

Now if it does exist, and if it is stationary in space, and // we can
determine the absolute motion of the earth with respect to it, then
we shall have found our much-desired frame of reference fixed m
space.

The early experiments seemed to show that the ether is really at
rest in space. In 1727 Bradley discovered the aberration of light, and
the velocit}'- of light as calculated from his formula agreed well with
that found fifty years earlier by Roemer from observations of the
eclipses of Jupiter 's satellites. Now since the fact of aberration seems
inexplicable on any other basis than a fixed or stationary' ether, be-
cause if the ether in the telescope tube travels with it there would
be no reason for any aberration, it was considered that the aberration
of light clearly indicated that the ether is at rest in space, and that the
material composing the earth moves through the ether just as a tennis
racquet moves through air, allowing it to flow through the holes in the
stringing. But it seemed incredible that any medium could stream

22 Journal op^ the Mitchell Society [September

through the interstices in and between molecules in the solid earth at
a rate sometimes of more than thirty miles per second without showing
the least sign of friction or binding of any kind, and so further experi-
ments were made. A\Yy tried the aberration experiment with a tele-
scope tube filled with water, and expected to see an increased aberra-
tion, because the velocity of light in water is only three-fourths of
what it is in air, and according to the aberration formula the less
the velocity of light in the telescope tube the greater the angle of
aberration should be.

But when Airy measured the angle through which the water-slowed
light was deflected, he found it exactly the same as Bradley had foiuid
for full-speed light! This was a puzzling thing, to be explained only
on the theory that the water dragged the ether along with it, with a
velocity sufficient to compensate exactly for the change expected in the
angle from the diminished velocity of light. Time is wanting to detail
the experiments of Fizeau, Fresnel, and others to settle this point, but
they showed apparently that something of the kind does take place,
— a sort of entrainment or cling or viscous drag of the ether,^ — and
they strengthened enormously the conviction that the ether does exist,
is a substantial medium, and can be affected by matter, — that is,
dragged along.

This brings ils to the celebrated experiment of Michelson and ]\Ior-
ley, which was an attempt made in 1881, and subsequently repeated,
to measure the absolute speed of the earth with respect to the station-
ary ether of space. They certainly had a right to expect success, for
they took every precaution to ensure it. The experiment consisted in
splitting a ray of light, sending one-half in the direction of the earth's
motion through space, then reflecting it by a mirror back to the source,
while the other half of the yslj is sent at right angles to the line of
motion of the earth, and is then similarly reflected back, the two
reflected rays interfering to produce interference bands in an inter-
ferometer, invented by Michelson.

The distance from the source to each mirror is exactly the same,
but the distance the light travels to and fro between the mirrors and
the source is not the same when the earth is in motion, being greater
in the line-of-motion direction than in the direction at right angles to
it. The mirrors and other instruments were mounted on a heav.v stone
slab floated in mercury, and they expected that when the apparatus
was turned through a right angle so that what was before the longer

1920] The Theory of Relativity 23

line-of-motion system became the shorter thwartwise system, they
would see the interference fringes in the interferometer move to the
right or left. But nothing of the kind happened, and the inevitable
conclusion was that there is no appreciable relative motion between the
earth and the ether, — -that is, that the earth drags the ether in its
vicinity along with it at full earth-velocity!

But if so, how can we explain the Airy experiment with the water-
filled telescope, where the ether seemed to be dragged with a velocity
less than half that of the earth? And especially should be asked,
how shall we explain the aberration of light, which seemed to show that
the ether isn 't dragged along at all ? Yet undoubtedly the Michelson-
Morley experiment seems to indicate that the whole earth is sur-
rounded by an envelope of stagnant ether, at rest with respect to the
earth. This is absolutely contradictory, and physicists lost no time
in making further tests.

Lodge spun a huge double disk of steel with tremendous velocity,
and sent* a split ray of light around in a groove between the two
disks, half in one direction, half in the other. If the discs dragged
the ether in the narrow groove around with them, the two half rays,
one going with the dragged ether, the other against it, ought to inter-
fere and produce fringes. Again no effect. Mascart and others de-
vised most beautiful and accurate tests, but all of them gave negative
results. ■ In short, as Lodge says : ' ' Interference methods all fail to
display any trace of relative motion between earth and ether. ' ' Wood
sums it up as follows : ' ' Every experiment, with the exception of
the one performed by Michelson and Morley, is in accord with the
hypothesis of a stationary ether, ' ' — that is, an ether perfectly station-
ary in space.

But how then can we explain the negative result of the Michelson-
Morley experiment? Certainly interference methods are the most
accurate and sensitive we have in the science of optics, and if they fail
to detect relative motion between the moving earth and the fixed
ether how can we believe that it exists ? Lorentz and Fitzgerald then
came independently to the conclusion that a moving piece of matter
contracts in the direction of its motion. While this contraction is
small, — less than three inches in the case of the earth's diameter in
the direction of its orbital motion, — yet it would account exactly for
the negative result of the Michelson-Morley experiment, because the
longer path of the light parallel to the line of motion of the earth

24 Journal of the Mitchell Society ' [September

might, by contraction of the stone slab, become exactly equal to the
thwartwise path, and if so, no displacement of the interference frinoes
would result. Besides, this contraction is to be expected, anyhow, on
the basis of the electron tlieory of matter, and in just the amount nec-
essary to explain the negative result of the Michelson-Morley ex-
periment. Tests were then made with wood and steel beams, in jilace
of the stone slab, and it was found that they apparently contracted
in the same manner and to the same extent, so we conclude that all
matter behaves in the same way. But if such a contraction takes place
in crystals, it looks as though double refraction should take place in
them. This was tried b^- Lord Rayleigh and b}' Brace, but again
with a negative result.

It seemed as though all the forces of nature were in a conspiracy
to defeat our efforts to find a fixed frame of reference, and the deter-
mination of the absolute vBlocity of the earth with reference thereto,
so that after all our work and experimentation it must be admitted
that we have but the slightest real idea of either the magnitude or
direction of our motion through space, though it would be of the first
importance to us in astronomy and physics if we could only know it.

Now we come to the Einstein Theory of Relativity, which was at
first an attempt simply to explain the negative results of the Michel-
son-Morley experiment. We must clearly distinguish three steps or
stages in the development of this theory: (1) the Special Relativity
theory; (2) the General Relativity theory; and (3) the latter theory
as applied to gravitation, or the Einstein Theory of Gravitation.

To aid us in understanding the theory of Relativity, let us recall
a few of the results attained in the development of Newtonian mechan-
ics, on which we have built confidently the entire structure of modern
physical science. (Of course the Newtonian mechanics, in its turn,
is founded on Euclidean geometry, with its dozen axioms and postu-
lates and its three-dimensional space.) In our search for the funda-
mental, bedrock conceptions, we have adopted, following the lead of
Newton, those of Length, Mass and Time, as separate and distinct
ideas, independent of each other, and perhaps capable of absolute
measurement. For these we have adopted as our fundamental units
the centimeter for length, the gram for mass, and the second for time,
giving us the centimeter-gram-second or c.g.s. system of units. We
have attempted to base all other ideas, such as force, work, energy,
etc., on these as derived ideas, and we call their units derived units.

19W] The Theory of Relativity 25

For example, the notion of velocity implies that a certain length of
path is traversed in a certain time, and so by dividing the length by
the time we get the rate of motion, which is the derived quantity we
call velocity. Hence the dimensional formula, so-called, of velocity,
is L/T. In the same way we can express every physical quantity in
terras of a dimensional formula involving L, M, and T, except a few
which we have been obliged to express partly in quantities just as
fundamental as any others, — namely, temperature, magnetic perme-
abilitj^ and specific inductive capacity.

In addition we have grown accustomed to accept without question
Newton's laws of motion, and his inverse square law of gravitation,
and we never doubted the unchangeable character of mass. We be-
lieved that a quantity of matter had the same mass and inertia under
any and all conditions of place, time and velocity. We could change
its weight, but not its mass, and this is the law of Conservation of
Mass.

It is true that in 1881 J. J. Thomson, a rising young physicist,
newly appointed head of the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge,
showed mathematically that an electric charge in motion took on
additional mass, but as its velocity had to be very great, — twenty
thousand miles per second and upwards, — before this extra mass, or
quasi-mass, became appreciable, his work had only a theoretical in-
terest, because up to 1897 the highest velocity ever reached by mat-
ter, so far as we knew, was that of the great comet of 1882, and that
was only four hundred miles per second at the perihelion point of
its orbit. In 1897, however, Thomson's theory of the dependence of
mass upon velocity suddenly became of the highest interest, because
he not only found a way to measure the enormous velocity of flying
electrons in a vacuum tube, but also of measuring their charge and
their mass, and by developing this method Kaufmann, Bucherer and
others proved by measuring the mass of electrons at various speeds
that Thomson was quite right in his theory, and that mass does de-
pend upon velocity. It follows, therefore, that the mass of a body in
the direction of its motion is different from its mass in a transverse
direction, and hence arose the idea of longitudinal and transverse
mass. Thus a body may have two values of its mass at the same time,
— truly a wide departure from the old Newtonian idea.

The whole mass of any body at rest is now supposed to be due
to the motion and the energy content of its component parts, — elec-

26 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Septei)iher

Irons, atoms and molecules, — while if the bod}' itself is in motion an
additional mass is given to it in the direction of motion. A shell
weighing one ton will have an additional mass of one-millionth of a
gram when fired with a muzzle velocity of 2,500 feet per second. For
small speeds, therefore, the increase of mass is inappreciable, but for
speeds of more than 100,000 miles per second the mass rapidly in-
creases until at the velocity of light, which is 186.000 miles per sec-
ond, the mass of a body would be infinite. The electrons inside an
atom, and the rays fired off from radium, do actually reach prodigious
velocities, — more than 100,000 miles per second.

But if mass is a function of velocity it is not a fundamental quan-
tity, and cannot have an independent existence, so it must be given
up as one of the pillars of the temple of science. Now comes Rela-
tivity and shows that determinations of both length and time also de-
pend upon velocity, so they do not have an independent existence
either, and two more pillars of the temple fall, irretrievably', because
the determination of absolute velocity is forever beyond our reach.

Thus we have our first experience with the realm of Relativity, —
the land of Topsyturvydom. "We have our three fundamental concep-
tions of Length, Mass and Time all depending upon a derived concep-
tion. Velocity, which we formerly held to be dependent upon them !
And then, having pointed this out, the relativist quietly states that
all such experiments as that of Michelson and Morley are bound to
fail, because it is impossible to determine the absolute velocity of the
earth through the ether by experiments made on the earth, and be-
sides, there isn't any ether anyhow! To the first statement we reply
that we are on the earth, and can't get anywhere else, so if we cannot
determine the velocity of the earth by experiments made here we
can never know its velocity, and never be able to fix a unit of absolute
motion. To which the relativist retorts, ' ' Quite right, — we never can, ' '
and this is the First Postulate of Relativity.

To the second statement, that there is no ethereal medium, we can
only ask what takes its place, to which the relativist replies, "No
medium at all ; electromagnetic energy, including light, is propagated
through space somewhat as water is thrown from a hose. It is self-
existent, and needs no medium." When we examine this remarkable
statement, we should have as the background of our thinking the facts
concerning the ether theory, which are, briefly, these: When the as-
sumption of the existence of the ether was made, to explain the phe-

1920] The Theory of Relativity 27

nomena of optics, electrostatics, etc., attempts were made to measure
its properties. Newton thought its density was something like 700,000
times less than that of water ; Lord Kelvin thought the ether so attenu-
ated that it had a density of only one-quintillionth that of water, and
many other scientists agreed with them as to the extreme tenuity of
the ether. On the other hand, Sir J. J. Thomson says that "all mass
is mass of the ether ; all momentum, momentum of the ether ; and all
Kinetic energy, kinetic energy of the ether," which shows the confi-
dence of the foremost English physicist in the reality of the ether,
but he goes on to say that this view "requires the density of the ether
to be immensely greater than that of any known substance." Other
leading physicists take this view also, and Sir Oliver Lodge insists
that the ether has a mass of one quadrillion grams per cubic centi-
meter, and that "compared to ether the densest matter, such as lead
or gold, is a filmy gossamer structure like a comet 's tail ' ' !

Now we all agree, I am sure, that when Kelvin claimed that one
cubic centimeter of the ether weighs one-quintillionth of a gram, and
Lodge says it weighs one quadrillion grams, (which is one million
tons), there is a serious discrepancy, to say the least, in the estimates
of physicists as to the properties of the ether, and we are not sur-
prised to learn that there are a multitude of ether theories, — solid,
liquid, elastic, labile, irrotational, gyrostatic, adynamic, etc., so no
wonder Relativity wants to get rid of the whole thing by turning the
ether out of doors.

And yet there comes, in protest, the cool reasoning of one of our
very foremost American physicists, Millikan, who says that the ether
"was called into being solely for the sake of furnishing a carrier for
electromagnetic waves, and it obviously stands or falls with the exist-
ence of such waves in vacuo, and this has never been questioned by
anyone, so far as I am aware." Other leading physicists protest also
against giving up the notion of the ether for what Newton called "the
forlorn idea" of empty space, among them being Lorentz, the great
Dutch mathematician and physicist.

But Planck, the originator of the Quantum Theory, gives up the
ether, and Einstein of course does the same, for his first postulate
implies this very thing. But his second postulate states that light in
a vacuum is propagated with a constant velocity quite independent
of the velocity of its source, and queerly enough, this postulate seems
to assume the existence of the ether, which the first postulate denies.

28 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

or as Stewart says, "we have the Principle of Relativity destroying
a concept which is nsed in one of its postulates," — another instance
of Topsyturv.ydom.

Einstein admits this, but cannot get away from the confidence he,
and all other physicists, have always had in Maxwell's great theory
of electrodynamics, and the equations in which it is expressed, and
so Einstein states in his London "Times" article that for this reason
he was led to achieve the logical reconciliation of his two postulates
b}- making a change in the doctrine of the physical laws of time and
space. In doing so, however, he was obliged to overthrow some of the
time-honored ideas of Galileo and Newton, and deal wath four-dimen-
sional, instead of three-dimensional space. Of course that also meant
using non-Euclidean mathematics, and the difficulties pressing upon
him from every side seemed nisuperable. But he was immensely
helped by the work of Minkowski, who developed a system of four
dimensions, — using time for the fourth dimension, — involving four
rectangular axes, of which three are for the three space dimensions,
and the fourth is the time axis. Space and time are thus bound to-
gether, and no mathematical difference is made between them, the axes
being interchangeable.

It is of course impossible for us to conceive of four dimensions all
at right angles to each other, but let us take this example : When we
go to the moving-picture show, we see the screen picture in only two
dimensions, of course. But we supply a third dimension in our minds
by seeing the perspective of the picture. We see a horseman coming
in the distance apparently straight towards us, along the third axis
wdiich our mind supplies perpendicular to the screen. But there is
another element in the picture, the time element. Time is always
of the essence in melodrama. The interest centers in the question as
to whether the hero, beset with difficulties and dangers, as he always
is, will be in time to rescue the fair heroine. This time element,
measured along an imaginary time axis, is also mentally present, and
the picture is not complete without it. And moreover, as stated before,
while we cannot visualize this axis at right angles to the others, the
mathematician can make his equations behave exactly as though we
could.

What Tennyson calls our "bourne of time and place," therefore,
Minkowski calls a four-dimensional "space-time continuum," and by
using four-dimensional geometrv he showed Jww events in nature may

j.^20] The Theory of Kelativity 29

he represented mathematically, and how any equation referred to these
four axes could be transformed to any other set of axes provided the
second set is at rest or moving uniformly with respect to the first.
Einstein used many of Minkowski's ideas, and developed what he calls
his Special Relativity Theory, which he describes as follows : The
Special Relativity theory is the application to any natural process of
the following- propositions :

1. Every law of nature which holds good with respect to a co-
ordinate system K must also hold good for any other system K' pro-
vided that K and K' are in uniform motion of translation.

2. The second proposition is that light has a constant velocity in
a vacuum, quite independent of the velocity of its source.

There is much experimental evidence for the truth of this second
postulate, and the special theory, resting only on the two postulates
just given, was eagerly studied by physicists.

It was immediately seen that the most important fields of study
were those of acceleration and energy. The conception that inert mass
is nothing but latent energy was developed, the law of conservation
of mass lost its independence and became merged with the law of
conservation of energy, and new laws of motion, differing from New-
ton's, were worked out for masses moving with great velocity. Many
startling and unexpected results were found, and Einstein pushed his
investigations vigorously. Please remember that his special theory
dealt only with axes in uniform motion, and he next tried to find a
more generalized theory dealing with axes in any kind of motion.
Again the obstacles in his path seemed to defy his highest skill. But
he persisted, for he asked himself, whj^ must the independence of
physical laws with regard to a system of co-ordinates be limited to
a system of co-ordinates in uniform motion of translation with regard
to one another? What has Nature to do with the co-ordinate systems
which we propose, or with their motions? "We must, of course, use
arbitrarily chosen systems to describe Nature's operations, but they
ought not to be limited as to their state of motion. So he worked on
until he found the necessary transformation formulae for any hind
of motion of the axes, and_this is what he calls his General Theory
of Relativity, the single postulate of which may be stated as follows :
The laws of nature must remain invariant for all transformations of
co-ordinates. But he further says that "a generalized theory of

30 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

Relativity must include the laws of gravitation, and actual pursuit of
the conception has justified the hope." So his third achievement -is
his new theory of gravitation, which diflfers widely in some respects
from that of Newton. To understand it is not easy.

First, let me remind you that gravitation has always been a phys-
ical mystery, and numerous theories to account for it have been de-
veloped without success. For one thing the speed of gravitation
seems to be infinite, the only thing in nature which has a speed greater
than light. Again, we say the sun "attracts" the earth and holds it
in its orbit, but when we find that this so-called attraction is a force
sufficient to break a million millon rods of the best tensile steel, each
seventeen feet in diameter, we are amazed that any ethereal medium
can transmit it. And if we let the ether go, we are still more perplexed.
Let us, however, start with the conception that all pulls are really
pushes. When lemonade is sucked or pulled through a straw, it is
really the pressure of the atmosphere which pushes it through the
straw from the other end. Perhaps gravitation is a push, rather than
a pull.

When a baseball curves, we do not imagine something pulling it
around in a curve, but we think of the bank of air in front and on the
side of it, due to its twisting motion, as pushing it around. In like
manner a railroad train is pushed by the reaction of the outer rail
around the curve in the track. So we may imagine gravitation as
pushing the earth around in its curved orbit. From this conception
let us proceed to another, — the principle of Least Action. It may
be familiarly expressed in this way ; every moving body holds to the
line of least resistance. That is what the curving baseball does; per-
haps that is what the curving earth does. If so, the first thing to
ascertain is what the line of least resistance is in space, and why it
is so, if we can ; at any rate, find out what a body will do, and how
it will move under certain conditions.

This Einstein has done, and as he worked he came more and more
to the conclusion that the idea of gravitation, like the ideas of time
and space, is only part of the mental scaffolding we have erected to
explain the phenomena of nature, and has no existence apart from
our brains. To understand this let us imagine ourselves in an elevator
high up in the Woolworth building. We 'feel the weight of our bodies
pressing the soles of our feet ; we feel the weight of the package we
are carrying; perhaps a pendulum is swinging in the elevator. Then

i£i^OJ The Theory of Relativity 31

suppose the wire rope breaks ; the elevator v^^ith its contents falls ver-
tically with the gravitational acceleration of thirty-two feet per sec-
ond per second.

If we could keep our mental equilibrium under the circum-
stances, we would notice that our weight appeared to vanish ; that the
package we carried also lost its weight, and if we removed our hand
from it, it would remain suspended in mid-air ; the pendulum, if at
the end of its swing when the rope broke, would remain there motion-
less and would not swing back. In other words, so far as we are
concerned, and so long as the elevator is falling, gravity has been anni-
hilated by giving the appropriate acceleration to the elevator. In
reality, an observer inside a closed windowless box could not by any
means decide whether the box is in a static gravitational field, or is
endowed with accelerated motion in a space free from gravitation.
We seem to weigh more while in an elevator ascending with acceler-
ated motion, so that acceleration simulates gravitation and may be
substituted for it. Now imagine two sets of four-dimensional axes, one
set stationarj^ in the Woolworth building, and the other set fixed in
the falling elevator. Let x, y, z, and t be the co-ordinates of a point
with reference to the second, or falling-elevator set of axes. Then,
since we have no gravitation in the elevator to complicate matters, an
element of length ds with reference to this set would be given by
the equation

fls- =: dx- + cly' + dz= + dt-

Now let the same point mentioned above have at the same instant
the co-ordinates x', y', z' and t' with reference to the first, or fixed-in-
the-building set of axes. Then the transformation equation for ds
will be

d8^ — g„dx'2 + g^dj'' + g,,dz" + g44clt'- + 2g,A x'dy' -f 2g,,dx 'dz' + etc.

There are ten of these g coefficients, and their value depend? on
ihe nature of the transformation, and specifies it. They can be used,
therefore, not only to specify it, but they also define the original grav-
itational field, because they specify how it was got rid of.

Now in Einstein's theory these ten gr's, used in ten differential
equations, are regarded as ten values of the gravitational potential
specifying the field, and one of them, g^^, is approximately the same
as the Newtonian potential, except for a factor.

32 Journal of the Mitchell Society ISrpfcDihrr

Einstein, after long investigation, has so chosen his equations that
they remain unaltered by any change of co-ordinates, and these ten
are the only ones which do satisfy all conditions. What has just been
said illustrates Einstein's famous "Principle of Equivalence," which
states that for any particle at any instant it is possible to replace the
effect of a gravitational field upon it by a mathematical transforma-
tion of axes.

If, therefore, gravitation can be annihilated mathematically by
a transformation to an accelerated set of axes, and if its very existence
depends upon a choice of axes, which is contrary to the General Rela-
tivity Postulate, then gravitation, in the words of deSitter, "becomes
almost a property of space."

Of course a first approximation from Einstein's (■({nations, neg-
lecting terms of higher orders, gives the old Newtonian law for com-
paratively small velocities. Please notice, however, that Einstein's
theory only shows how gravitation acts, not what causes it to act thus.
It is in no sense an explanation of gravitation, which remains as
much of a mystery as before. Now a new theory, like a tree, is known
by its fruits, and when Einstein was asked to make his theory do
things to prove its truth he was at first perplexed to find cases in
which the actual differences between his theory and that of Newton
could be subjected to observation.

But he was not long at a loss, and presented three eases which
would test the correctness of his theory. The first case was the long
outstanding discrepancy between theoiy and observation shown in the
displacement of the perihelion point of Mercury's orbit. This point
shifts around toward the east at the rate of 574 seconds of arc per
century. The Newtonian mechanics, allowing for the effect of the other
planets on Mercury's orbit, accounts for a shift of only 532 seconds,
thus leaving an unexplained shift of 42 seconds of arc per century.
Einstein's theory calls for a difference of 43 seconds, — an almost
startling agreement. But of course Einstein might have started with
this answer, and worked backwards, as it were, to his equations, so
a great deal more interest was taken in his second case : a prediction
that at the eclipse of the sun on May 29, 1917, the light of certain
stars which just grazed the sun on its way to the earth would be found
to have a deviation from a straight path because of the sun's gravita-
tional field which he estimated would amount to 1.75 seconds of arc.

l.'J;^0\ The Theory of Relativity 33

This prediction was made in 1917, two years before the eclipse,
and Einstein was a professor in a German university, shut in by the
war, and so helpless to test the observation himself, but the English
promptly began to make plans for sending out not one but two eclipse
expeditions to test the theory. Let us examine the point in question.
For years it has been customary to regard light as having mass, for
we reasoned as follows : Light is a form of energy ; being of the
kinetic type it is expressed mathematically in terms of its velocity
and its mass, or at least something that takes the place of mass and
acts like it. Now if light possesses mass and velocity it must possess
momentum, and ought to exert a push when it falls on a body. This
light pressure, or radiation pressure, was predicted by Maxwell, and
its value calculated by him, but it was only experimentally confirmed
forty years later by Nichols and Hull and Lebedew. It is the radia-
tion pressure from the sun which causes a comet 's tail to stream behind
the comet when approaching the sun, and to stream ahead of the
comet when receding from the sun.

The question next arises, does light possess weight? Is the mass
of light the kind which is acted on by gravitation? If so, we can
consider a beam of light passing near the sun as a comet, and using
the regular comet formula we can regard the speed of light as the
speed of the comet, and as usual insert the proper value of nearest
approach to the sun. From this formula we can find the angle be-
tween the asymptotes of the cometary orbit, and hence find the angle
of deviation of the ray which we should expect on the basis of New-
tonian mechanics. The result is an angle of .82 seconds of arc. Now
in the case of ordinary comets we have always found that their speed
increases while they are approaching the sun, and decreases after they
have swung round it on their long journey back into the depths of
space, so Newton's idea was that this acceleration should be expected
of any comet moving with any speed, and acted on by the sun's gravi-
tation, because force always produces acceleration in a mass free to
move.

And just here is one of the most interesting of Einstein's dis-
coveries. It is shown from his formulas that if a body is approaching
the sun with a velocity less than about 100,000 miles a second, it will
be accelerated in its motion, but if it has a velocity greater than this
amount it will actually he retarded as it moves toward the sun. Such
a thing is inconceivable on the basis of Newtonian mechanics. Incon-

34 Journal op^ the jMitciiei.l Society [September

cc'ivable, yes, Imt is it true? Einstein worked out his predicted devia-
tion of a ray of light grazing the sun on the idea that it is true, —
that the ray does reall}- suffer a retardation on its way toward the
sun proportional to the increasing gravitational field of the sun.
This would of course make the part of the wave front closest to the
sun move more slowly than the remoter portion, and hence the ray
would be swung round through an angle of 1.75 seconds of arc, as
already mentioned, and this is more than twice the angle expected
from Newton's laws. So here is a clear-cut test; — Newton or Ein-
stein, — a deviation of .82 seconds of arc, or a deviation of 1.75 sec-
onds. Wliich would it be? The two British eclipse expeditions sent
out last summer, one to Sobral, in Brazil, and the other to Prince's
Island, west coast of Africa, both detected the deviation, and in the
required amount to show the correctness of Einstein's views.

This was the triumph which put Einstein's name on the front
page of every newspaper, and made every physicist in the world prick
up his mental ears and begin to study Einstein's work more closely.

The third test set by Einstein for his theory was this: — his formu-
las show that the inside mechanism of an atom moves more slowly
in a gravitational field than in free space. Perhaps this is due to the
retardation suffered by a particle moving with a prodigious velocity
through a gravitational field, as considered above. At any rate,
Einstein predicted that light waves coming from a source located
in an intense gravitational field would make a spectrum in which the
lines would be shifted toward the longer-wave end of the spectrum,
which is the red end.

This effect was looked for without success, lint Einstein remained
serene in his conviction that it would be found, and offered to rest the
validity of his entire theory upon it.

Now comes his third triumph, for quite recently two young physi-
cists at Bonn not only detected the shift towards the red end of the
spectrum, but also discovered the reasons why previous attemi)ts to
find it, at Mt. Wilson and elsewhere, were unsuccessful.

These three triumphant verifications of the Einstein ideas about
gravitation" have focussed the eyes of the world upon this modest
scholar in Berlin. Born a German Jew, he moved to Switzerland
during his boyhood, was educated there, became a Swiss citizen and
served for some years in the Swiss patent office. During this time he
pursued his mathematical studies, and later taught in the Zurich Poly-

1,920] The Theory of Relativity 35

technikiim, from which he went to the University of Prague. Just
before the war he was called to the University of Berlin, at the
age of forty. He did not sympathize with the militarists and pro-
tested vehemently against the famous, or rather infamous, manifesto
of the German professors in 1915. His frank statement expressing
his thanks to the English government and to his ''English colleagues"
for going to so much trouble and expense to verify his predictions,
when he was himself helpless to do so, shows a fine spirit, and has
gained for him both admiration and respect. It was, in part, as
follows : "It was in accordance with the high and proud tradition
of English science that English scientific men should have given their
time and labor, and that English institutions should have provided the
material means, to test a theory that had been completed and published
in the country of their enemies in the midst of war."

Some of the more mathematical and theoretical conclusions drawn
from his equations may be interesting. If a circle be imagined in
empty space, its circumference bears to its diameter the usual ratio
of 3.14159 to 1, but if a heavj^ mass be placed at its center, the ratio
of circumference to diameter is changed, because of a ''warp in space"
produced by the mass. Again, suppose a wheel is rotating in space.
The rim of the wheel, because it is at every point moving in the direc-
tion of its length, suifers the contraction already explained in connec-
tion with the Michelson-Morley experiment, but the. spokes of the
wheel are not moving in the direction of their length, and hence do
not suffer contraction. Here again the circumference of the wheel
changes length while the diameter does not, so the ratio is again not
the usual one. This same contraction in the direction of motion is
suffered by electrical, optical and gravitational fields. If a system
is moving with respect to us, the unit of time in the moving system
seems longer to us than to an observer on that system, and
when the system is moving with respect to ours with the velocity of
light, their second would seem infinitely long to us. That is, if we
could watch a clock face on a system receding from us with the
velocity of light, although an observer on the system with the clock
would see it running as usual, we would forever see the clock hand
at exactly the same point.

This sounds as crazj' as anything in "Alice in Wonderland," and
in fact the Mad Hatter must have been the originator of Relativity,
and to have had this very point in mind when he claimed that for

36 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Septcmher

him it was always six o'clock and always tea-time. Einstein goes
even farther than this; let me quote his own words: ''We could sub-
stitute for the clock a living organism enclosed in a box. Were it
hurled through space like the clock it would be possible for the organ-
ism, after a flight of whatever distance, to return to its starting point
practically unchanged, while an exactly similar organism which re-
mained motionless at the starting point might have given place to
new generations. For the organism in motion, time was but a moment,
if its speed approached the velocity of light." This statement implies
that not only does time depend on velocity, but that the rapidity of
chemical and biological processes is also a function of velocity.

Rosalind's remark is therefore doubly true, that "Time travels
in divers paces with divers persons," and until the velocity
of each system is known (that is, the relative velocity, for we
can never find the absolute velocity of any system,) we cannot know
with whom the swift foot of Time ambles, trots, gallops, or even
stands still withal. One observer's now may be another observer's
future and a third observer's past, all at the some cosmical moment
of time. Two actions quite simultaneous to one observer may not be
simultaneous to another observer located in a different system. Again,
what to a stationary observer is an electrostatic field is to a moving
observer an electromagnetic field.

According to Einstein and Minkowski any point relatively at rest
in space really traces a "world-line" or "path of adventure" parallel
to the time axis. The locus of a point in relative motion is a line mak-
ing an angle with the time axis. An observation is the crossing of
two or more world-lines, and we know nothing of these world-lines
between the points of crossing with other world-lines. The axes of
our four-dimensional space-time continuum have been aptly called
the to-and-fro axis, the forward-and-backward axis, the up-and-down
axis and the sooner-and-later axis, the last, of course, being the time
axis. On one side of the origin the time axis represents the past, on
the other side the future. Events do not happen, — they are coinci-
dences of world-lines, and are simply there, to be met or happened
upon, as it were. A few years ago Anderson's new star burst forth.
Whatever caused it is supposed to have occurred about the year of
George Washington's birth, but we only happened upon a crossing
of its world-lines with ours one hundred and seventy years later. If
a change is made in an element of our sj'stem, it alters the whole past,

19::0] TiiE Theop.y of Relativity 37

mathematically speaking, as well as the future. This seems absurd,
and corresponds to nothing real in our experience, so far as we
know, but these equations we are discussing have proved true in so
many ways that we eagerly anticipate their further interpretation.
New tests for straightness of lines, for simultaneity of events,
etc., have been adopted, and everything seems queer and unfamiliar.
Straight lines, according to Relativity, appear crooked to us, and vice
versa. Spheres in motion become oblate spheroids, and we feel like
the prisoner in Gilbert and Sullivan's opera, condemned always to
play on a warped table, "on a cloth untrue, with a twisted cue,
and elliptical billiard balls."

According to this theory, also, the greatest possible velocity in
space is that of light, — 186,000 miles per second. Even if a shell
were fired with a velocity of 100,000 miles per second directly for-
ward from a gun mounted on a car moving with the same velocity of
100,000 miles per second, the resultant velocity of the shell would
not be 200,000 miles per second, as we should expect, but only 150,000.
No combination of any number of velocities impressed upon a body
can exceed the velocity of light. The new definitions of physical terms
are equally puzzling, as for example: "Matter does not cause the
curvature of space, — it is the curvature." Again, Einstein has prac-
tically ignored in his theory the idea of force as the condition for
change of motion, which was possibly the greatest contribution made
by Galileo to the science of dj-namics, and in spite of the fact that
some physicists hold force to be perhaps the most basic of all the ideas
of mechanics. As already said, the ether, which Planck calls a "child
of sorrow," is, in the eyes of relativists, hopelessl}^ discredited.

The work of Einstein is epoch-making. Just as for sixty years
everything in physics has had to square with Maxwell's equations, —
even Einstein's theory, — so now there is already seen a tendency to
make our thinking square with Einstein's equations. Just what results
will come out of the new theory it is impossible to say. The Einstein
mechanics have shown at least some power of exploration of intra-
atomic space, which Newtonian mechanics could not do, and this may
assist us in the development of a rational theory of atomic structure
better than any theory we now have.

But we are not to stop here. The English are actively preparing
to make even more accurate observations in Australia during the

38 Journal of^ the ^Iitchei.l Society [Septcmhrr

eclipse of 21st September, 1922, when we may liope to have miu-h
additional light thrown upon the whole subject, wliieh now presents,
it must be confessed, many difficulties. For example, according to
the new quantum theor}^ energy is radiated in a discontinuous fasliion
in very small amounts called quanta. The value of a quantum lias
been determined, but according to the Relativity theory, since it trav-
els with the speed of light, every quantum should a|)i)eai- infinite,
which it doesn't.

Then, too, by no means all physicists agree with the tlieory, and
Abraham, for instance, has opposed it vigorously, warning us against
the ''Sirenenklaenge dieser Theorie." Many others, such as Sir Jo-
seph Larmor, Avhile not hostile, are lukewarm. T ronton says that Rela-
tivity is merely trying to remove the lion in the path by laying down
the general proposition that the existence of lions is an impossibility.

The truth is that the theory is so new, so revolutionary, and so
difficult to understand, that the natural conservatism of science forces
it to make its way slowly. Then, too, the language in which it is
expressed in the articles scattered through the literature of the
subject is not easily "understanded of the people." As an example,
Larmor complains in one of his articles that a certain expression is
only "wrapping up in abstractions the simple statement that when at
any place the quadratic characteristic of the spatial extension in-
volves the differential of the co-ordinate specially related to time in
its product terms, then there is latent in it a specification of its own
mode of change at that place with respect to uniform space-time."'
You see what a "simple statement" in non-Euclidean Relativity
sounds like, and this may throw light on Einstein's reported saying
that he did not suppose there were more than twelve men on the earth
at present who can understand his theory fully. The surprising
thing about this statement is that he should have put the inimb<'r
so high as twelve.

In conclusion, let us sum up the situation: I'onservatives in sci-
ence claim that at best Einstein has merely introduced some refine-
ments in our mathematical weapons of attack; but the radicals claim
that he has overthrowMi much of the older mechanics, has given the
coup de grace to the ether, and has started an entirely new chapter
in the development of human thought comparable onl.v to tluit beg\ni
by Galileo and Newton ; furthermore, tliat the Relativity i)oint of

1920] The Theory of Relativity 39

view will color everything in the future, and that we have now two and
only two foundations on which we can build with confidence, — the
Electromagnetic Theory of Clerk Maxwell and the General Relativity
Theory of Albert Einstein.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

A PAETIAL LI8T OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES CONSULTED

Physical Optics. 2d. Edition. R. W. Wood, Chapters 24 and 25.

The Progress of Physics. A. Schuster.

Electrons. Oliver Lodge.

History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. E. T. Whittaker. :

Aether and Matter. J. Larmor. Chapter 2, Appendix D.

Electricity and Matter. J. J. Thomson.

The Ether of Space. O. Lodge. ,

Modern Electrical Theory. 2d Edition. N. R. Campbell

The Electron. R. A. Millikan.

Resume of Observations Concerning the Solar Eclipse of May 29, 1919, and the
Einstein Effect. L. A. Bauer, Science, March 26, 1920.

Euclid, Newton and Einstein. "W. G. ", Nature, Feb. 12, 1920.

The Theory of Relativity. A. C. D. Crommelin, Nature, Feb. 12, 1920.

Einstein's Theory of Gravitation. E. Cunningham, Nature, Dee. 4, Dec. 11,
and Dec. 18, 1919.

The Recent Eclipse Results, and the Stokes Planck Ether. L. Silberstein, Phil.
Mag., February, 1920.

Gravitational Deflection of High-Speed Particles. Leigh Page. Nature, Feb.
26, 1920.

The Ether vs. Relativity. Oliver Lodge. Fortnightly Review, January, 1920.

Gravitation and Light. J. Larmor. Nature, Dec. 25, 1919, and Jan. 22, 1920.

A New Conception of the Universe. A. J. Lotka. Harper 's Mag., Feb., 1920.

Time, Space and Gravitation. A. Einstein. Educational Review, Feb. 1920.

Gravitation and the Principle of Relativity. A. S. Eddington. Nature, Dee.

28, 1916.
Elementarquantum der Energie. J. Stark. Physik. Zeitsehr., Dec. 1, 1907.
Relativity in Astronomy. W. C. Rufus. Popular Astronomy, March, 1918.
Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Koerper. A. Einstein. Ann. der Physik, 17, 1905,

p. 891.

Relativitaet und Gravitation. A. Einstein. Ann. der Phys., 38, 1912, p. 1059.
Lichtgeschwindigkeit und Statik des Gravitationsfeldes. A. Einstein. Ann. der
Phys., .38, 1912, p. 355.

40 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

Raum und Zeit. H. Minkowski. Phy. Zeitschr., 10, 1909.

The Principle of Relativity. E. Cunningham. Nature, June 11 and 18, 1914.

The Second Postulate of the Tlieory of Relativity. Q. Majorana. Phys. Rev.,

May, 1918.
Relativity. A. 8. Eddington. Nature, March 7 and 14, 1918.
Presidential Address, Section A, British Association, 1914. F. T. Trouton,

Nature, August 20, 1914.
Einstein's Theory of Relativity. Morris R. Cohen. New Republic, .j.-iiiuary

21 and February 18, 1920.
Applications of the Lorentz-FitzGerald Hypothesis to Dynamical and Gravita-
tional Problems. H. A. Bumstead. Am. Jour. Sci., 26, 1908.
Relativity. D. F. Comstock. Science, May 20, 1910.
On the Theory of Relativity. R. D. Carmichael. Phys. Rev., Sept., 1912; Feb.

and March, 1913.
The Second Postulate of Relativity and the Electromagnetic Emission Theory

of Light. R. C. Tolman. Phys. Rev., 32. 1911, p. 148.
The Second Postulate of Relativity. R. C. Tolman. Phys. Rev., 31, 1910, p. 26.
On the Essence of Physical Relativity. J. Larmor. Sci. Am. Supp., No. 2253.
Relation of Mass to Energy. D. F. Comstock. Phil. Mag., 15, 1908, p. 1.
Fundamental Laws of Matter and Electricity. G. N. Lewis, Phil. Mag., 16,

1908, p. 705.
New Concepts of Time and Space. Claude Bragdon. Dial, Feb., 1920.
Acht Voi-lesungen ueber Theoretische Physik. Max Planck, 1909.
Relativitaet und Gravitation. M. Abraham. Ann. der Phys., 38, 1912, p. 1056.
Relativity and Ether. Leigh Page. Ann. Jour. Sci., Aug., 1914.
Aether and Matter. Oliver Lodge. Nature, Sept. 4 and Sept. 25, 1919.
Physical Relativity. G. W. deTunzelmann. Sci. Am. Suppl., May 31, 1919.
Einstein's Law of Gravitation. J. S. Ames. Science, March 12, 1920.
Results of the Total Solar Eclipse of May 29. A. C. D. Crommelin. Nature,

Nov. 13, 1919.
Relativity and Gravitation. O. Lodge and A. S. Eddington. Nature, Sept. 13,

1917.
Einstein's Third Victory. R. D. Carmichael. N. Y. Times, March 28, 1920.
Gravitational Deflection of High Speed Particles. A. S. Eddington. Nature,

March 11, 1920.
Gravitational Shift of Spectral Lines. H. Jeffreys. Nature, March 11, 1920.
The New Relativity in Physics. R. A. Wetzel. Science, Oct. 3, 1913.
Attitude of the Newer Physics toward the Mechanical View of Nature. G.

B. Pegram. Ed. Rev., March, 1911.

1920 \ The Theory of Relativity 41

The Theory of Eelativity. L. T. M. Nation, Apr. 11, 1912.
The Principal Concepts of Physics. W. F. Magie. Science, Feb. 23, 1912.
The Principle of Equivalence and the Notion of Force. C. A. Kichardson.
Nature, March 18, 1920.

A NEW METHOD FOR LAYING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES
BY DEFLECTIONS FROM THE P. I.

By T. F. HiCKERSON

With Three Text Figures

The writer hopes that the tables based upon formulas given be-
low will fill the long-felt need of a simple and time-saving method
for laying out circular curves by deflections from the point of inter-
section of the tangents (the P. I.), thus avoiding the trouble of
moving the instrument and resetting the vernier.

Referring to Fig. 1, P is any point on the circular arc CB and A
is the point of intersection of the tangents. Also C is the point of
curve (P. C), and B is the point of tangent (P. T.). Lines from
points A and to point P makes angles of and o. with the line AO,
these angles being plus when measured above AO and minus when
below it. PN is drawn perpendicular to AO. The deflection angle is
called A.

PN R siu a R sin a
Ton e = — =

AN E + E — R t-os a R (sec V^ A — 1) -|- R — R cos a

sin a

Hence, tan 6 = (1).

see y-2 A — cos a

Formula (1) shows that for a given value of A^ the angle is
independent of the radius of the curve or the length of curve.

Imagine the curve divided into ten equal parts, then formula (1)
gives the deflections to these points of division as follows :

sin ti A
a = tio A, tan 91 = —

a = •)i() A . tan 9^ :=:

a = ri A , tan 9 ;, =

a =z '',](i A , tan 9 < =

sec y. A — cos lioA

a = (). 9 , =: O ,

a = — iioA, 9 „ = — e,,

^ = — -;ioA, 9 , = — 9:.,

a = — %oA, 9 , = — 9„

a = — Mo A, 9 ,, = — 9,,

a =3 — s^ioA, 9,„ = — i/,(18() — A).

[ 42 ]

see i/^A — cos
sin %oA

MoA'

sec 1^ A — cos
sin 710 A

%oA

sec 14 A — cos 71 A
sin li A

1920]

New Method for Laying Out Circular Curves

43

Values of 0^, 0.,, 0.,, etc., computed by means of the above for-
mulas for different values of A show that they change uniformhj
with A ; so that interpolation gives results as closely as 1 minute for
ranges of 1° in A.

PT/B

IP

\sf

tx

Fig. 1

For convenience in laying out curves without resetting the vernier,
these directions to points on the curve are referred to the first tangent,
the line CA produced.

Instrument at the P. I., and vernier reading A° on the P. T.,
we have :

44 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

— e, = 90° + y^A — Gi.

Deflection to point

( 1)

=

A + %(18C

) —

- A

( 2)

=

90°

+

1/2 A

—

62,

( 3)

=:

90°

+

i/>A

—

Q.,

( 4)

=z

90°

+

i/l>A

—

©4,

( 5)

^

90°

+

i/,A

( 6)

m

90°

+

y2A

+

4,

( 7)

=

90°

4-

¥2 A

+

3,

( 8)

=

90°

+

¥2 A

+

2,

( 9)

=

90°

+

¥2 A

+

e.,

(10)

^=

180'

It should be noted that the following pairs of deflections add up
to 180° + A°; (1) + (9), (2)'+ (8), (3) + (7) and (4) + (6).

Using the above formulas, tables have been computed for all values
of the deflection angle A varying by 1° from 3° to 128°. This covers
all cases that are likely to occur in locating curves for roads and
streets.

Fig. 2 is a graphical verification of the fact that for a fixed A,
the deflections to the points of equal division on a curve remain con-
stant for any length of the curve. This makes the method perfectly
general.

The order of procedure in laj'ing out a curve is as follows : ( 1 )
set up the instrument at the P. I., backsight on the first tangent witii
vernier reading 0°, transit the telescope, unclamp the vernier and fix
the line of sight on the second tangent, the vernier giving the de-
flection angle A°; (2) decide what length of curve to use (deter-
mined usually either by the desired external distance E or the tan-
gent length T) ; (3) compute T and E, using either the well-known
table of tangents and externals for a 1° curve, or preferably the tan-
gents and externals for a 100-ft. curve (Table II) ; (4) lay ofl^ the
tangent length locating the end of the curve (the P. T.) ; (5) di-
vide the length of curve by 10 and locate each of the ten points, or
every other one, or every third one, etc., depending upon how many
are needed to properly define the curve, by starting at the P. T., and
getting the intersection of the end of the chord with the line of sight
from the P. I., according to deflections read directly from the tables
(Table I).

The middle point, or the 5th point of the curve, cannot be located
very precisely by intersections, since the end of the chord would be
moved in an arc tangent to the line of sight. This point can be lo-
cated exactly by measuring the external distance E from the P. I.,
and this serves as a check. If only the 2d, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th
points are located, then it is not necessary to know E.

1920'

New Method for Laying Out Circular Curves

45

VI

v /

/ \

//'/ /

//

/ /

I \ \ \ .

I \ \ \

\ \\

/^/

^7 I

\^

/^c.A

'7 I

4-\

,fPT

.A \/

PC.

'^

\pr

Oy^S

'>*V*'''

,PT

Fig. 2

The beginning of the curve (the P. C.) is located as the 10th
point by a deflection which is always 180°. The station number of
the P. C. is known, hence its location can be checked by measuring

46 Journal op the Mitchell Society [Sepfeniher

the plus distance back to the preceding station. This method avoids
measuring the tangent distance from the P. I., in order to locate the
P. C.

It should be noted that the curve can be located b.y starting at
the P. C. instead of the P. T., the deflection to the first point being
the same as that to the 9th jioint as given by Table 1, etc.

If part of the curve is not visible from the P. I., say that beyond

point 6, then the instrument may be moved to point 6 and the reaiain-

ing points located by deflections from a preceding chord. Suppose a

backsight is taken to point 2, vernier reading 0°, then after reversing

' 5A° A<»

the telescope the proper deflection to locate point 7 is = — ,

etc. 2 X 10 4

For very long curves in woods and at places where the P. I. is
not accessible, the well-known deflection method should be used, that
is, the instrument is moved to the P. C, and intermediate points on
the curve.

During the past summer the writer was in charge of a party that
surveyed 22 miles of federal-aid highways in hilly and mountainous
country, and the following facts were observed: (1) not a single case
of inaccessible P. I. occurred; (2) along 86 per cent of the curves the
P. I. was visible throughout; (3) in only 42 per cent of the curves
was the P. T. visible from the P. C. This means that 86 per cent of
the curves could have been laid out completely with the instrument
set only once (at the P. I.), whereas 58 per cent of them actually re-
quired the instrument to ])e set up three times. The first 11 miles was
in fairly open country along the general direction of an old road.
Here 96 per cent of the curves were visible throughout from the P. I.,
but 70 per cent of the P. T. points were not visible from the P. C.
The other 11 miles of the survey was partly in a dense forest and not
along an old road.

Aside from the time saved in not having to move the instrument,
another step in the usual operation of laying out a curve is avoided,
and that is, the tangent distance is not measured from the P. I., in
order to locate the P. C. Curves laid out by the usual method begin
and end with subchords of unequal length. This makes the deflections
rather tedious to compute. The errors are eunuilative, and tlie writer
has seen the best of transitmen waste time in trying to find the little
error that prevented the final check.

19:^0] New Metpiod for Laying Out Circular Curves

47

The resident engineer can more easily pick np the P. I., than any
other point and he would find it convenient to realign the curve by
deflections from this position while construction is going on, since it
is apt to be beyond the grade stakes and not disturbed.

The points on the curve established by deflections according to
the proposed new method are at equal and integral distances apart,
but they are not full stations. The writer believes the advantages
of full station points are largely imaginative. However, the chain-
men can easily locate full station points on their return trip from
the P. C. to the P. T., as is explained in Example 1. The middle or-
dinate of the equal chords can be found in Table III which has been
compiled by the writer for the purpose. In this connection, it should
be remembered that middle ordinates vary practically as the square of
the chords ; and for any chord, the ordinates vary practically as those
of a parabola. See Fig. 3. Thus if the middle ordinate is 1 ft. the ordi-
nate (or offset) at a point 2/5th of the chord-length from the end of
the chord is 0.6 ft. The middle ordinate in practice is usually less
than 1 ft. as will be seen later.

Before proceeding with an illustration, Table II will be explained.
This table gives the Externals, Tangents, Radii, and Degrees of Curve
for circular Arcs of 100 feet in length according to values of the deflec-
tion angle ranging from 1° to 128°. It is offered as a substitute for
the tables giving the functions of a 1° curve. The following formulas
were used in computing the values in Table II :

100 A 100 A

D =

L 100

5729.578

5729.578

T = E tan V., A = tan i/> A ,

A
5729.578
E = K tan M.. A = exsec i/,A,

48 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Scptemher

For curves longer than 100 feet, the tabular values of the external,
tangent, and radius must be multiplied, and the degree of curve di-
vided, bj^ the ratio of the given curve length to 100. For example,
suppose A is 24° and the length of curve to be used is 400 feet, then

24
E = 5.334 X 4 = 21.3, T = 50.744 X 4 = 203.0, D = — = 6°,

4
R = 238.8 X 4 = 955.2. This tables gives conveniently a length of
curve that will always be a multiple of ten. The chords therefore
will always be an integral number of feet in length.

Exatnple 1.

Given A = 40°00'; P. I at Sta. 62 + 11.8

From Table II, L = 100, E = 9.193, T = 52.135, D = 40°.

Suppose local conditions are such that E should equal 4G feet

46
approximately. Hence, ratio = — = 5.

9.2

L = 500, E = 46.0, T = 260.7, D = S°.

500
= 50 == length of each chord to be applied 10 times.

10
P. I. = 62 + 11.8

T. = 2 + 60.7

P. C. = 59 + 51.1
L. = 5

P. T. = 64 + 51.1

For A ^z= 40°00', the deflections are given directly in Table I as
follows :

Points Deflections

P. T. A

1st 40° 29'

2d 42°29'

3d 47°58'

4th 63°41'

5th (E -= 46.0) n0°00'

6th 156°19'

7th 172°02'

8th 177°31'

9th 179°31'

10th P. C. 180°00'

1930] New Method for Laying Out Circular Curves ■19

As a check in taking deflections from the table, it should be noted
that the 1st + 9th = 2d J- 8th == 3d-f 7th ^ 4th -f 6th = 180
+ A = 220°00'.

The above points on the curve are not at full stations ; but the
chainmen, on their way back from the P. C, can very easily set stakes
at full station and -(- 50 foot points as follows : the rear chainman
holds the -\- 51.1 division of the tape at the P. C, and aligns the front
chainman by sighting to the 9th point of the curve ; then a right
angle offset on the P. I. side of the curve, at a certain fraction (see
Fig. 3) of the middle ordinate for a chord of 50 feet (see Table III),
locates Sta. 60 (in this case the middle ordinate is 0.44 ft. and the
offset is less than 0.1 ft.) ; next the rear chainman holds the zero end
of the tape at Sta. 60 and aligns the front chainman by sighting from
the 9th point to the 8tli point, in order to locate Sta. 60 -f- 50 which is
so near the 8th point it does not have to be shifted. The other stations
are established in a similar manner.

Example 2.

Given A = 20^20' ; P. I. at Sta. 37 + 18.2.
T = 50.532, E ^ 4.5 (Table II).

Suppose T = 100 = approx. desired length of tangent.
Eatio = 2, hence L = 200, T = 101.0, D = 10°10'.
P. I. = 37 + 18.2
T = 1 + 01.0

P. C. = 36 + 17.
L = 2

P. T. = 38 + 17.2
200

:= 20. Use 40-ft. chords applied five times.

10

Points Deflections

P. T. A°

2d 21°40'

4th 35° 13'

6th 165°07'

8th 178°40'

10th P. C. 180°00'

2d + Sth = 4th + 6th = 200°20'. Check.

The quantities in Tables II and III are based on the definition
that the "degree of curve" is the central angle subtended by an arc
of 100 feet instead of a chord of 100 feet. The radius of a one-
degree curve is found by means of the following proportion :

36000 36000
1° : 360° =: 100 feet : 2f;R feet, hence R = = = 5729.578

feet.

2(3.14159)

50

Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

The middle ordinate (M) of an are whose central angle is a° and
whose chord is c feet, is given by the formula :

M = R vers i/oa (4).

c"
Also M ^= approx (5).

8 R

Formula (5) shows that for any radius, the middle ordinates vary
as the square of the chords. The above formulas were used in com-
puting Table III.

Assuming the arc to be parabolic, we ha-ve a convenient relation
between ordinates at any point along the chord and the middle ordi-
nate. See Fig. 3. For example, an ordinate at 8/10 of the chord-
length from one end of the chord is 6/10 of the middle ordinate.

In practice, the middle ordinate is usually less than 1.0 foot, pro-
vided the chords do not exceed the limit where they vary more than
.05 ft. from the arc. Table III shows these limits to be as follows :

100 ft.

chords

up to 6° curves

50 ft.

" " lt3° "

40 ft.

" " 25° "

30 ft.

" " 37° "

25 ft.

" " 47° "

20 ft.

" " 67° "

15 ft.

" " 100° "

middle ordinates uj) to 1.31 ft.

' 0.S7 ft

' 0.87 ft

' 0.72 ft

' 0.64 ft

' 0.58 ft

' 0.49 ft

1920

New Method for Laying Out Circular Curves

51

TABLE I.

)cfleetion.s from the P. I. to Points of Equal Division

along Circular Curves.

ooc<io in !C(Moo S

+i%i i 1111 °

^^\%i%i i 111^ =

<lrH

siOMco en usoooci o

r-l{M(MCv3 C5 CDt^t^t^ CO

II o ffi'fp 8 S3S^5 §

^c3 OOCiCOt- % 0%C0 3-- O
Vl=^ (N<NCO-* O ^f^^P- CO

O O N O lO S) <M O O =
ri' r-I r->' rH O Q O Q Q O
+ + + + + 1 111

s-i r- d d cci d CO d d ^ d

53^ O O r^ -* IC ^ rH O O r

Q an i 111^ -

ilo

rH i-H iC IM O COO-*-* O

CO Cl 1-H i-i CS CO ':0 GO 35 O

1-1 r-l W CO Oi Ol:^l>-t^ 00

i-H T-H r-l i-l rH

II
<1«M

as.

rH CO I^ ih O LO i^ CO ^ O
OOOJ'sO lO CO<MOO O

r^ddl^ d ^dd^ d
o o 1-; .o lo iq <-; o o o

r-^ r-I r-I r-' O Q Q Q O O
+ + + + ^ 111 1

lU

CO W-* o o ^occt^ o

r-l O -^ -^ CO rH rH lO ^ O

t^COOOl °/3 t^OOOCl O
i-l^(M(M C5 Ot~.t^l^ CO

Ho

b ^ CO ^ b b r- b I^ c

rH-rCOO O lO(Mi-('^ o
COl>-!— 1-1< CO i—t-^OOOi o

(M oi CO Tfi o cor^t-i^ CO

5"^

rH CD F-f t* O t- rH O rH O
OONSD lO O <N O O O

an i 1111 -

5^

r^COCJ»M O (MO-.Or^ O
O O i-H lO lO lO ■-' o o o

4^^4^i i 1111 °

II o

c<icoe<io Q ^oct-co o

i-IOCOO O O (M U3 -1^ O

COt^OiCO CO ^^ O 00 3i O
i-H i-H j-H OJ Oi Xt^t^t^ 00

I-H i-H i-H i-H i-l

Ho i-HMlMCO CO c5cO?5?! 8

^ CD rH 05 O CS i^ CO T^ O

ooc^co ia coc^ioo o

an i 1111 °

5H\

o o (N in in lo oi S o 8

r-i r-i i-H r-i d Q cp Q O O

++++ + TIT 1

II o

<l2

i-HCidirj O ITS*— irHCl O
r-H in r-( (N CO CO -T* O -:t^ O

Ho

Sf?S8 8 Sf.h'li 8

-rior;.-' (M co-raDOi o

C<I (M C-l rti O CO t^ t- t^ rxi

^cb?H05 o C-. ^o^ d

O O CJ » lO O (N O O O

an i 1111 °

^bbih b ihbb^ b

OOCMIO O lOtMOO o

+?^^i i 1111 °

II

oiiscb^ O O '^ ih O Q

i-HirSO"* O rH lO O lO o

-^ ^ r^ M< r- Oi xi 31 o o
i-« )-t i-( (M Oi CO t^ t^ ^- 00

^".

C-doof- d coffidco d

rH CO O C<I CO CO O CO M* O

CO % r- V. % CO u-2 CO :-. o

^ i= ^ ^ b ^^co^ b

qi:iiqi:; ^ 1111 °

O O C-1 lA O in 'M O O O
rn' r^' r-.' r-' d p O O O O
++++ + 11 11

lip

<IS3

b^co^ b br^bb b
CO CO ic CO CO a:>tr-OiC: O

i-H i-H r-t C^ Oi COt^t*I> 00

II COCOCOCO O t*'*-^-*' o
Ho rH(M-*iO O OrHCO-f O

aj\

O O (M I>- ift Ir- (N O O O

ph" r-I r-i r^ O* <D O Q Q* O

++++ + T 111

5'^

O O 05 S lO O (M_ O S O

1-1 i-H i-H r-i d c? d d d d

++++ + TTTT

11^

Ho

COC<l-ft^ O C0'OG0-t< O

r-t(MCOr-t CO -^(MCO-^ O

^ C'l LG to Q ^ ?:^ Xi O: b
C^fMClCO O COJ~-r^t'- CO

"5^

o b w CO b CO c<i b b b

iiii i 1111 °

iq^q^^ i 1111 ^

nS

s>ooJ-co d c^deq^H d

O "^ -^ r-t O ■* fH iH U3 O

(M (M -** 1-H O 0t-0505 O
rHF-'f-'C-l Ci t*f*t^t* 00

ocic-ii-i o oicci-'tn o

I— II—'T^-l' O 1— tCO-^-T o

CU

0^ 1

52

Journal of the ]\Iitchell Society [Septemher

TABLE 11.

Externals, Tangents, Radii and Degrees of Curve to a 100 Ft. Circular Arc.

Diff.
10'

Diff.
10'

Defl.
per Ft.

r

0.218

.036

50.001

.001

5730

1°

0.3'

"2°

0.436

.036

50.005

.001

2865

2°

0.6'

3-

0.655

.036

50.012

.001

1910

3°

0.9'

4°

0.873

.036

50.020

.002

1432

4°

1.2'

5°

1.092

.036

50.032

.002

1146

5°

1.5'

6°

1.310

.036

50.046

.003

955.0

6°

1.8'

7°

1.530

.036

50.062

.003

818.6

7°

2.1'

S°

1.749

.036

50.081

.004

716.2

8°

2.4'

9°

1.969

.036

50.103

.004

636.6

9°

2.7'

10°

2.189

.036

50.127

.005

573.0

10°

3.0'

11°

2.409

.037

50.155

.005

520.9

11°

3.3'

• 12°

2.630

.037

50.184

.005

477.5

12°

3.6'

1.3°

2.851

.037

50.216

.006

440.8

13°

3.9'

14°

3.073

.037

50.251

.006

409.3

14°

4.2'

15°

3.296

.037

50.288

.007

3S2.0

15°

4.5'

16°

3.519

.037

.50.328

.007

358.1

16°

4.8'

17°

3.743

.037

50.370

.008

.3,37.0

17°

5.1'

18°

3.968

.037

50.416

.008

318.3

18°

5.4'

19°

4.193

.038

50.463

.009

301.6

19°

5.7'

20°

4.419

.038

50.514

.009

286.5

20°

6.0'

21°

4.646

.038

50.567

.010

272.9

21°

6.3'

22°

4.875

.038

50.624

.010

260.4

22°

6.6'

23°

5.104

.038

50.6S3

.010

249.1

23°

6.9'

24°

5.334

.039

50.744

.011

238.8

24°

7.2'

25°

5.565

.039

50.809

.011

229.2

25°

7.5'

26°

5.797

.039

50.876

.012

220.4

26°

7.8'

27°

6.030

.039

50.9t6

.012

212.2

27°

8.1'

28°

6.264

.039

51.020

.013

204.6

28°

8.4'

29°

6.500 •

.040

51.096

.013

197.6

29°

8.7'

30°

6.737

.040

51.175

.014

191.0

30°

9.0'

,31°

6.976

.040

51.257

.014

184.8

31°

9.3'

32°

7.216

.040

51.342

.015

179.1

32°

9.6'

33°

7.457

.040

51.430

.015

173.6

33°

9.9'

34°

7.700

.041

51.521

.016

168.5

34°

10.2'

35°

7.944

.041

51.615

.016

163.7

35°

10.5'

36°

8.190

.041

51.712

.017

159.2

36°

10.8'

37°

8.438

.042

51.813

.017

154.9

37°

11.1'-

38°

S.68S

.042

51.917

.018

150.8

38°

11.4'

.39°

8.939

.042

52.024

.019

146.9

39°

11.7'

40°

9.193

.043

52.135

.019

143.2

40°

12.0'

41°

9.448

.043

52.249

.020

139.8

41°

12.3'

42°

9.706

.043

52.366

.020

136.4

42°

12.6'

43°

9.965

.044

52.487

.021

1.33.3

43°

12.9'

44°

10.227

.044

52.611

.021

130.2

44°

13.2'

45°

10.491

.044

52.739

.022

127.3

45°

13.5'

40°

10.757

.045

52.871

.023

124.6

46°

13.8'

47°

11.025

.045

53.006

.023

121.9

47°

14.1'

48°

11.296

.046

53.145

.024

119.4

48°

14.4'

49°

11.570

.046

53.288

.025

117.0

49°

14.7'

50°

11.846

.047

53.435

.025

114.6

50°

15.0'

51°

12.125

.047

53.586

.026

112.3

51°

15.3'

52°

12.407

.047

53.740

.027

110.2

52°

15.6'

53°

12.691

.048

53.899

.027

108.1

53°

15.9'

54°

12.979

.049

54.062

.028

106.1

54°

16.2'

55°

13.270

.050

54.230

.029

104.1

55°

16.5'

56°

13.564

.050

54.402

.029

102.1

56°

16.8'

57°

13.861

.050

54.577

.030

100.5

57°

17.1'

58°

14.161

.051

54.758

.031

98.79

58°

17.4'

59°

14.465

.051

54.943

.032

97.11

59°

17.7'

60°

14.773

.052

55.133

.033

95.49

60°

18.0'

61°

15.084

.053

55.328

.033

93.93

61°

18..3'

62°

15.399

.053

55.527

.034

92.41

62°

18.6'

63°

15.718

.054

55.732

.035

90.95

63°

18.9'

64°

16.041

.055

55.941

.036

89.52

64°

19.2'

1920]

New Method for Laying Out Circular Curves

53

TABLE HI.

MIOTLF. OROINATFS

CHORDS

Deg.

Radius

Curve

For Chords of

For Arcs of

100 Ft. 80 PL 60 Ft. 50 Ft. 40 Ft.

100 Ft.

SOFt. 60 Ft.

50Ft.40Ft.

1-

5730

0.2 0.1

0.1

0.0 0.0

100

80

60

50

40

2°

2865

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1 0.1

100

80

60

50

40

3°

1910

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.2 0.1

100

80

60

50

40

i"

1432

0.9

0.6

0.3

0.2 0.1

100

80

60

50

40

5°

1146

1.1

0.7

0.4

0.3 0.2

100

80

60

50

40

6°

955.0

1.3

0.8

0.5

0.3 0.2

100

80

eo

50

40

7°

818.6

1.5

1.0

0.6

0.4 0.3

99.94

80

60

50

40

8°

716.2

1.8

1.1

0.6

0.4 0.3

99.92

80

60

50

40

9°

636.6

2.0

1.2

0.7

0.5 0.3

99.90

79.95

60

50

40

10"

573.0

2.2

1.4

0.8 0.5 0.3

_99.88_

J79.93_

60

50

40

For Chords of

For Arcs of

520.9

SOFt. 60Ft. SOFi. 40Ft. 30Ft.

SOFt.

~79.92~

eOFi. 50 Ft. 40 Ft. SOFt.

11°

1.5

0.9

0.6

0.4 2

60

50

40

30

12°

477.5

1.7

0.9

0.7

0.4 .2

79.91

60

50

40

30

13°

440.8

1.8

1.0

0.7

0.4 .2

79.89

60

50

40

30

U°

409.3

2.0

1.1

0.8

0.5 3

79.87

59.95

50

40

30

15°

382.0

2.1

1.2

0.8

0.5 3

79.85

59.94

50

40

30

16°

358.1

2.2

1.3

0.9

0.6 .3

79.83

59.93

49.95

40

30

17°

337.0

2.4

1.3

0.9

0.6 .3

79.81

_59^92

49.95

40_

30

For Chords of

For/

Ires of

318.3

60 Ft. 50 Ft

40 Ft 30 Ft. 25 Ft.

60 Ft.

50 Ft.

4)?l.

SOFl. 25Fi

18°

1.4~

1.0

"0.6^

0.3

0.2

~5979r"

49.94

~40

~30~25"

19°

301.6

1.5

1.0

0.7

0.4

0.3

59.90

49.94

40

30 25

20°

286.5

1.6

1.1

0.7

0.4

0.3

59.89

49.94

40

30 25

21°

272.9

1.7

1.1

0.7

0.4

0.3

59.88'

49.93

40

30 25

22°

260.4

1.7

1.2

0.8

0.4

0.3

59.87

49.93

40

30 25

23°

249.1

1.8

1.3

0.8

0.5

0.3

59.84

49.91

40

30 25

24°

238.8

1.9

1.3

0.8

0.5

0.3

59.84

49.91

40

30 25

25°

229.2

2.0

1.4

0.9

0.5

0.3

59.82

49.90

39.95

30 2.1

26°

220.4

2.0

1.4

0.9

0.5

0.3

59.81

49.90

39.95

30 25

27°

212.2

2.1

1.5

0.9

0.5

0.4

59.79

49.89

39.94

30 25

28°

204.6

2.2

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.4

59.78

49.88

39.94

30 25

29°

197.6

2.3

1.6

1.0

0.6

0.4

59.77

49.87

39.93

30 25

30°

191.0

2.3

1.6

1.0

0.6

0.4

59.76

49.87

39.93

30 25

31°

184.8

2.4

1.7

1.1

0.6

0.4

59.74

49.85

39.92

30 . 25

32°

179.1

2.5_

1.7

1.1

0.6

0.4

59.73

49.84

39.92

_30 25

For Chords if

Fi r Arcs of

173.6

SOFt. SOFt. 25 Ft. 20 Ft. 10 Ft.

50 Ft.

SOFt. 25 Ft.

20 Ft.

10 Ft.

33°

1.8

0.6

0.4

0.3 0.1

^49783"

30 25

""20"

~10"

34°

168.5

1.8

0.7

0.5

0.3 0.1

49.82

30 25

20

10

35°

163.7

1.9

0.7

0.5

0.3 0.1

49.81

30 25

20

10

36°

159.2

2.0

0.7

0.5

0.3 0.1

49.80

30 25

20

10

37°

154.9

2.0

0.7

0.5

0.3 0.1

49.79

29.95 25

20

10

■ 38°

150.8

2.1

0.7

0.5

0.3 0.1

49.78

29.95 25

20

10

39°

146.9

2.1

0.8

0.5

0.3 0.1

49.77

29.95 25

20

10

40°

143.2

2.2

0.8

0.5

0.3

0.1

49.75

29.94 25

20

10

41°

139.8

2.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.1

49.74

29.94 25

20

10

42°-

136.4

2.3

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.1

49.73

29.94 25

20

10

43°

133.3

2.3

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.1

49.71

29.93 25

20

10

44°

130.2

2.4

0.9

0.6

0.4

0.1

49.69

29.93 25

20

10

45°

127.3

2.4

0.9

0.6

0.4

0.1

49.67

29.92

25

20

10

46°

124.6

2.5

0.9

0.6

0.4 0.1

49.65

29.92

25

20

10

47°

121.9

2.6

0.9

0.6

0.4 0.1

49.63

29.92

24.95

20

10

48°

119.4

2.6

0.9

0.6

0.4 0.1

49.62

29.92

24.95

20

in

49°

117.0

2.7

1.0

0.7

0.4 0.1

49.60

29.91

24.95

20

10

50°

114.0

2.7

1.0

0.7

0.4

0.1

49.59

29.91

24.94

20

10

Note — Tables I, II and III complete for values of
A up to 128° in convenient form for use in tlie field
may be obtaiiit d from the author at a price of 25 cents
per copy.

A REMARKABLE FORM OF SKELETAL ELEMENT IN THE
LITHISTID SPONGES

(A Case of Analogical Resemblance)

By H. V. Wilson

With Four Text Figures

Sponges, like other groups, are rich in the structural resemblances
which are due to common descent, resemblances which involve nu-
merous organs in the individual animal and wliich are of such a com-
plex intricate character, striking so deeply into the constitutional
make-up, that it is impossible to think of them as due to any natural
cause save kinship. But as we stud}' these infinitely variable animals,
we encounter resemblances which fall in another category, resem-
blances which involve only some special detail of structure or at most
a few features, which in their actual functioning are correlated in
physiological-mechanical function. Such resemblances are certainly,
in many cases at least, not inheritances from a common ancestor. "We
group them together as analogical but they fall in two subdivisions :
(1) those involving features which are called out in each individual
organism by the stimulus of an environment, and which do not appear
when that environment is changed; and (2) those involving features
which are racial characteristics, viz., characteristics that have arisen
and become fixed, in some way, during the course of evolution and
which continue to appear under different sets of environmental con-
ditions.

Analogical resemblances of this latter class are due to the inde-
pendent occurrence of the same variation (or cumulative series of
variations), in different idioplasms. How such germinal changes,
mutations as we often call them, are brought about physiologically, is
a question that is being actively asked by many students of heredity,
especially by the experimental evolutionists, of today. Along with
the directly experimental attacks, descriptive work has its use in
locating facts which at some time it may be worth while to put under
the fire of experiment.

Partly, at least, in pursuance of this idea I wish to record a case
of resemblance which is certainly analogical, and which, it is practi-
cally certain, is racial. It involves the shape of the fundamental
spicule on which the characteristic skeletal element, the desma, of the
lithistid sponges is built up.

I 54 I

1920] Skeletal Element in Lithistid Sponges 55

The clesma is a silicious body, in most species of a complexly
branched shape (Figs. 3, 4), formed by the continued deposition of
silicious material on a silicious spicule which we may call the basic
spicule, technically crepis (Fig. 1). The basic spicules, which are
especially present in growing parts of the sponge, are free bodies,
that is, they lie in the living tissues of the sponge unconnected with
one another or with other skeletal elements. The desmas on the con-
trary as they assume the final shape, become articulated with one an-
other, and in most species become firmly united to form a coherent
skeleton which presents the appearance of a network of silicious beams.

Now the basic spicule of the desma is in some lithistida a four-
rayed spicule (tetraxial or tetractinellid spicule), in others a simple
rod-shaped spicule (monaxial). Different as are the basic spicules in
these two groups of species, the complete desmas are not always easy
to distinguish, for in both cases they may become complexly branched
bodies. This superficial similarity of the two kinds of desmas, those
built on tetraxial, and those built on monaxial spicules, is in itself
significant, but when we find, as we do in some species, desmas of the
latter class varying toward desmas of the former class, it becomes
clear that the desma built on a four-rayed spicule (tetracrepid
desma) is the original or ancestral type, while the desma built on a
monaxial spicule (monocrepid desma) is a derived type. These in-
teresting and important variations were first described by 0. Schmidt
in Discodermia clavatella (0. Schmidt, 1879, pp. 12, 24). Sollas
(1888, p. 341) confirmed the facts and convinced himself "that a com-
plete series of transitional forms connect the monocrepid and the tetra-
crepid desmas." Topsent (1904, p. 60) has discovered the same state
of affairs in another lithistid sponge, Macandrewia azorica.

The four-rayed shape may thus be regarded as the original, actual
or ancestral, shape of the spicule which is transformed by the depo-
sition of silicious matter into the desma. This spicule in the case of
tetracrepid desmas in general is what is called a calthrops, viz., a
spicule in which the four rays are similar, making the same angle
with one another and having the same length. But in at least one
species, Desmanthus incrustans Topsent, an evolutionary change has
occurred, whereby one of the rays of the basic spicule has become
longer than the others, the spicule thus being converted from a
calthrops into a triaene. In the triaene, a very common form of spic-
ule in the non-lithistid tetraxial sponges, we distinguish, then, one

56 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Septemher

long ray, the shaft (technically rhabdome), and three shorter rays
(the cladi, forming together the cladonie), which are given off from
the end of the shaft. In the sponge which I shall now describe, a
further evolutionary change has occurred, and rays are given off at
both ends of the shaft of the basic spicule, the spicule thus becoming
what is called an amjihitriaene (Fig. 1).

The sponge referred to is a Philippine form, a new species, Jere-
opsis fruticosa mihi, dredged by the U. S. Fisheries Steamer Albatross
in 80 fathoms in the region of the Sulu Archipelago, and which will
be described in detail in a forthcoming report on Philippine sponges.
It is a stony sponge of branching-cylindrical, or shrubby, habitus,
55 mm. high, and with the free spicules of the genus (dichotriaenes,
oxeas, and streptasters including amphiasters and spirasters). In
the two other recorded species of the genus, Jereopsis schmidtii (Sol-
las) from the tropical Atlantic and Jereopsis {Neosiphonia) superstes
(Sollas) from the tropical Pacific (cf. Sollas 1888, Lendenfeld 1903),
the desma is, perhaps, the usual type of tetracrepid desma, built up
on a calthrops. Schmidt's figure (1879, Taf. II, Fig. 10) suggests
however that this is not the case. I hope at some time to have the
opportunity of making a critical examination of the desma, from this
point of view, in the type specimens of these two species.

The facts concerning the development and structure of the desma
in this sponge {Jereopsis fruticosa) are as follows:

Small, perfectly free amphitriaenes (Fig. 1) occur in the super-
ficial (ectosomal) region of the sponge. The spicules are about one-
sixth mm. long, and consist of a straight shaft with three rays (cladi)
at each end. The streak of peculiar substance, known as the "axial
canal," which is found in each of the axes of a tetraxial spicule, here
extends, as the figure shows, along the axis of the shaft and to the tip
of each ray.

Early stages in the transformation of such spicules into desmas
may be found near the surface of the sponge. One is shown in figure
2. Such young desmas are free or only slightly connected with the
body of the skeleton. In them the shaft continues to be of about the
same length as in the basic spicule (Fig. 1), although it is thicker,
but the rays have greatly increased in length. They measure now
from one-half to the full length of the shaft or indeed slightly over.
They are simple, viz., not branched, and when not corroded their ends
bear rounded tubercles for articulation with other desmas. The axial

1920]

Skeletal Element in Lithistid Sponges

57

substance, "axial canal", retains its former size (cf. Figs. 1, 2), thus
extending only into the basal part of each ray. This is the character-
istic behavior of the axial canal in the growth of the lithistid desma
in general.

As such desmas develop their final shape, they become firmly united
to the skeletal framework already formed. If one wishes to stud}'
accurateh' their fundamental shape after union, the spicules must be
isolated through the application of hydrofluoric acid to rough slices
of the framework. When the framework is so treated the desmas
fall apart. They are however corroded.

Figs. 1-4. Jereopsis fruticosa. Fig. 1, a free and uneorroded amphitriaene
from the ectosome. Fig. 2, a young desma, slightly corroded by hydrofluoric
acid, from the ectosome. Figs. 3 and 4, adult desmas somewhat corroded by the
hydrofluoric acid used to dissociate them from the skeletal framework. All x 150.

Desmas (Figs. 3, 4) obtained in this way show the unchanged
axial canal system which indicates the shape of the basic spicule on
which the desma has been built up. The shaft is now about three
times as thick as in the original spicule but no longer. The rays,
better designated now as branches (technically cladi), vary a great
deal not only in different spicules but in the same spicule. In some
cases they have not advanced over the condition described for the inter-
mediate stage (Fig. 2), either in size or complexity. More often, the
branch is itself branched, a condition which is produced, of course, not

58 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

by the division of the first branch but by the continued deposition of
silicions matter along lines which make angles with the first branch.
In this way secondary or even tertiary branches are formed. There
is apjoarently some law of growth which brings it about that no
branch shall materially exceed the shaft in length. When or before
that point is reached, new branches are formed. The articular tu-
bercles are developed on the ends of the branches, whether the latter
be primary, secondary, or tertiary. In many cases, as in Fig. 2,
where the branches are about equally developed at the two ends of the
shaft, the axial canal system of the basic amphitriaene is conspicuous,
but it may be overlooked in cases where, as in Fig. 4, the branches at
one end of the shaft are much more extensively developed than at the
other end.

The point of importance for this paper is that the basic spicule,
on which the adult desma is built, is an amphitriaene, that is a
spicule consisting of a shaft and three rays at each end of the shaft.
I can find no similar case recorded for the Lithistida.

In the non-lithistid tetraxial sponges, amphitriaenes are recorded
only for Samus Gray and Amphitethya Lendenfeld (1906). Samu.s
(one species) is a boring sponge occurring in the South Atlantic,
Indian, and South Pacific Oceans. The only megascleres are amphi-
trianes, which are not all alike. In the larger of these spicules, the
shaft, 80/A long, bears at each end three rays, each of which is trifid.
In the smaller ones, the shaft, 20jii long, bears at one end three simple
rays, and at the other end three trifid rays. While the sponge falls
in the Sigmataphora because of its microscleres, which are sigmata
(rods curved somewhat in c-shape, but with a spiral twist), its pecu-
liar megascleres give it an isolated position, setting it off as a family
(Samidae). The ontogeny of the amphitriaenes is not known, and
we have no data on their variation to indicate their origin. It is
highly probable however that the spicules have been derived from
triaenes, although Sollas (1888, p. 59) has suggested two other con-
ceivable origins.

In Amphitethya (Lendenfeld 1906, p. 126) there is no doubt that
the amphitriaenes, which characterize the genus, are derivatives of
the triaene. In Amphitethya microsigma Lendenfeld, a stalked species
with globular body dredged off the west coast of Australia, the facts
of variation which demonstrate this are as follows. Triaenes of sev-
eral kinds occur abundantly in the sponge, those in the more axial

1920] SKELf:TAL Element in Lithistid Sponges 59

part of the stalk having an especially long shaft, as is often the case
in such sponges. In the superficial part of the stalk there are abun-
dant triaenes with short shaft, and mingled with these are the likewise
abundant amphitriaenes. The latter spicules, in which the length of
the shaft is 160-540ft, are exceedingly variable, scarcely two alike, and
they form a close series grading over from amphitriaenes, quite like
the spicules I have described above, to the short-shafted triaenes.
These observations of the late Professor Lendenfeld securely establish
the origin of the amphitriaene. Amphitriaenes were already known
in the two other species of the genus, Amphitethya stipitata (Carter)
and in the sponge from Amboina designated by Topsent Tetilla mer-
guiensis Carter (Topsent 1897, p. 437). In the former Sollas
noted (1888, p. 49) that ''the amphitriaenes sometimes are reduced
to simple triaenes." In the latter, the detailed facts, such as similar-
ities in size and precise shape, convinced Topsent that the amphi-
triaenes are modified triaenes. Amphitethya is a genus with sigmata,
and thus falls in the Sigmatophora.

There is still another non-lithistid tetraxonid sponge in which at
least a step has been made toward the transformation of the triaene
into the amphitriaene. This is Ancorella paulini Lendenfeld (Len-
denfeld 1906, p. 248) from the Indian Ocean. The spicules referred
to consist of a shaft, one millimetre or less in length, which bears at
one end three cladi, projecting slightly downward as in an anatriaene,
and at the other end a similar single cladus, extending out from the
shaft at an angle in the same general direction as the cladi at the op-
posite end. The sponge is classed in the Astrophora by Lendenfeld,
who regards its microscleres (microxeas) as derived from streptasters.

It may be regarded as certain that the presence of the amphitriaene
in these several cases is not due to inheritance. The distance of the
sponges from one another in the classification, expressing their general
dissimilarity, negatives this idea. The comparison of Amphitethya
with Jereopsis is especially instructive. Each has plenty of close rela-
tives without amphitriaenes, and the two sponges fall in different
suborders of the Tetraxonida. To be sure the Lithistida may not be
a natural suborder but a polyphyletic group, some members of which
have been derived from non-lithistid tetraxonia with astrose ■
microscleres (Astrophora), and others from non-lithistid tetraxonida
with sigmata for microscleres (Sigmatophora). Even in this case

60 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

Jereopsis would be related to the Astrophora, Ainpliitetliya to the
Sigmatophora.'

The only conclusion that is possible is tiiat tlie triaene has varied
and become an amphitriaene, independently, in several groups. The
resemblance is analogical, one of ' convergent evolution ', a rubric under
which we group likenesses that are due to similar responses on the
part of related, but not necessarily closely related (witness the simi-
larities between the hydro- and scyphomedusae), organisms to the en-
vironment. We classify it, then, as due to a heritable change that may
occur in triaenes independently of inheritance, that is, reversion plays
no part in its appearance. We would like to know how to evoke it.

If this and similar cases _in the sponges should ever be approached
experimentally, through the alteration of the external or internal en-
vironment, the series of known spicule forms connecting perfect amphi-
triaenes with perfect triaenes, in Aniphitethya )nicrosig))ia, Avould lead
us to expect that the change induced would be more or less cumu-
lative. Also our general knowledge of variation in sponge spicules
(cf. Wilson 1904, pp. 9-10) would lead us to expect that the herita])le
change would probably at first affect comparatively few spicules.

That analogical similarities are common in sponges is generaly rec-
ognized, although there is not much that is definite in our knowledge.
Nowhere is more emphasis laid on their occurrence than in 0. Schmidt's
writings. As illustrating Schmidt's standpoint, the following cita-

'^ The remarkable cliaracter of the lithistiil desma makes a strong argument for the
inonophyletic origin of the group, weakened in no degree by the fact that some desmas are
built on four-rayed, others on rod-shaped, basic spicule.s. For (see above) the variation
1 henomena in several species show that the latter kind of basic spicule is reducible to
the former. Sollas (1888, p. CXIX) has laid weight on this argument for the monoiihyletic
origin of the group, which lie derives from the Astrophora. The derivation from the
Astrophora in particular is based on the fact that the most frequently-occurring type of
microsclere in the Lithistida is astrose. The fairly numerous Lithistida without microscleres
offer no difficulty to this theory, for comparative study shows that microscleres
have been independently lost during the evolution of various sponges. But the few forms
with sigmata (Scleritoderma, Taprobane) do offer a difficulty, if we continue to lay such
stress, as now, on differences in the matter of microscleres. The whole question (cf. Dendy
1905, p. 99) can only be raised, but not answered until our critical knowledge is much
greater. Alternative hypotheses may be formulated as follows: (1) We may assume a
monoi>hyletic origin of the group and trace it back along with the Astrophora and Sigma-
tophora to Tetraxonida with both kinds of microscleres, asters and sigmata, in which case
it would certainly be astonishing that the two kinds of microscleres had mutually repelled
one another during the evolution of the Astrophora and Sigmatophora, and again within
the Lithistida during the evolution of the existing families. (2) If we assume first the
evolution of the Astrophora and Sigmatophora from Tetraxonida with both kinds of micro
scleres, and then the origin of the Lithistida from the former, it is at least conceivable,
as Sollas has noted (Inc. cit. p. CXX) that the occurrence of sigmata in some Lithistida is
a case of reversion. J'ollowing out this idea, the reversion to sigmata might concoivably
occur in Lithistids that had lost their microscleres. If we assume it to have occurred in
forms with microscleres (asters), tlien again we meet tlie strange conclusion that sigmata
and asters repel one another, tlie reversional variation which brings back sigmata driving
out the asters. (3) If we lay stress in the first degree on the difference in microscleres,
we are driven to conclude that" the Lithistida have had a double origin, some from the Astro-
phora, some from the Sigmatophora, and that the habit of forming a complex body, the
desma. on a free basic spicule, has been twice acquired. Doubtless the number of liypothe-
ses that are logically sustainable, might be increased.

J. 920] Skeletal Element in Lithistid Sponges 61

tions from his "Sponges of the Gulf of Mexico" (1879) may be made.
''In the Sponge-fauna of the Atlantic Region, I have shown what a
great role within the sponges is played by the phenomenon of conver-
gence in the production of pseudo-homologies. These fall- under the
general concept of adaptations in so far as one is justified in speaking
of adaptations to general mechanical laws" {loc. cit., p. 4). Schmidt
goes on to say that his entire criticism of characters, in the work of
comparing organisms with one another, aims at distinguishing what is
the result of inheritance and what the effect of the environment, the
latter "only drawn into the stock of hereditary characters in the
course of a gradual process of fixation" (an abstract statement into
which more than one meaning may be read). He continues and notes
that in most contributions of the time, especially those dealing with
embryology, the possibility that morphological agreement is not always
based on common descent and heredity, is far too lightly passed over
(a habit of mind which the progress of physiological-mechanical
studies has greatly changed since Schmidt's time).
Chapel Hill, N. 0.

LITEEATUEE CITED

Dendy, a. 1905. Eeport on the sponges collected by Prof. Herdman, at Ceylon,

in 1902. In : Herdman Eep. Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Part III, London.
Lendenfeld, E. von. 1903. Das Tierreich, 19 Lieferung. Tetraxonia. Berlin.

1906. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition, Bd.

XI. Die Tetraxonia. Jena.
Schmidt, O. 1879. Die Spongien des Meerbusen von Mexico (und des Carai-

bischen Meeres). Erstes Heft. Jena.
Sollas, W. J. 1888. Eeport on the Tetractinellida collected by H. M. S. Chal-
lenger. Edinburgh.
ToPSENT, E. 1897. Spongiaires de la Bale d 'Amboine. Eevue Suisse de zoologie,

t. IV.
Topsent, E. 1904. Spongiaires des Acores. Eesultats des eampagnes scien-

tifiques accomplies sur son yacht par Albert ler Prince Souverain de Monaco.

Ease. XXV. Monaco.
Wilson, H. V. 1904. Eeports on an exploration off the west coasts of Mexico,

Central and South America, etc. The Sponges, Memoirs Mus. Comp. Zoology,

Vol. XXX,

THE TURTLES OF NORTH CAROLINA; WITH A KEY TO THE
TURTLES OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES

By C. S. Brimley

The animals known as tortoises, turtles or terrapins, no one of which
names by the way has an exact application to any particular group
of the order, are distinguished from all other living reptiles by having
the body enclosed in a bony shell, leaving only the head, neck and
limbs free. This shell consists of two portions, an upper more or less
arched portion known as the carapace and a lower, smaller, flattened
part known as the plastron. These two are united on each side by
a bony bridge or cartilaginous suture.

The majority of existing turtles have the shell covered with horny
plates, which do not agree, either in size, number or position with the
bony plates beneath (though on the carapace the general arrangement
of both is similar), but in two small groups the shell is covered with
a leathery skin instead.

The classification of turtles seems somewhat unsettled, but we can
distinguish without much trouble a few main groups, whatever may
be their exact relation to one another.

1. Athecae. Marine turtles with the shell composed of a mosaic
of small hexagonal plates which are free from the ribs and vertebrae,
and covered with a leathery black skin, and with seven longitudinal
ridges down the back. This group includes only the leatherback
turtles, the largest of all existing forms.

2. Thecaphora. In which the shell is composed of a number of
bony plates, agreeing in number with and attached to or composed of
the expanded ribs and upper processes of the vertebrae. These are
attached to a row of marginal bony plates forming the edge of the
shell, and these at the sides to another series of plates forming the
plastron.

The Thecaphora comprise the majority of existing turtles and di-
vide into :

(A) The soft-shelled turtles (Trionj'choidea) in which the shell
is flattened, orbicular and imperfectly ossified around the edges, and
covered with a leathery skin. The species occur in most parts of the
world.

[ 62 ]

1920] Turtles of North Carolina 63

(B) The side-necked turtles (Pleurodira) in which the shell is
covered with horny plates and the neck bends sideways (in a hori-
zontal plane) when drawn back. The species are all south tropical.

(C) The S-necked turtles (Cryptodira) in which the shell is
covered with horny plates and the neck bends in a vertical plane
when drawn back. The majority of existing turtles belong here, in-
cluding all the marine species except the leatherbacks.

All of these groups except the Pleurodira are represented in this
State or off our coasts, so that at present the turtles are known to
be represented in our State by four marine and fourteen inland species.

Of the marine turtles, which, however they may differ in struc-
ture, all agree in having the limbs developed as flattened paddles for
swimming and in having the front limbs much larger than the hind
ones, we get the leatherback, green turtle, loggerhead and bastard
turtle.

The leatherback is only occasional on our coast, but one caught
near Beaufort ^is now preserved as a mounted specimen in the State
Museum at Raleigh and weighed about 800 pounds. The species is
sometimes used as a source of oil.

The green turtle used to be common on our coast but has been
hunted so much for food, and its eggs collected for the same reason
that it is now very scarce.

The loggerhead and bastard turtle are still quite common in sum-
mer and the former breeds but the latter does not, its breeding season
being reported to be in the winter on the Florida coast.

These marine species all feed on both marine plants and animals.

Of the land and fresh water forms we get species belonging to
three families, while members of a fourth, the Trionychidae or soft-
shelled turtles should enter our State from either the south or west
or both, but as yet we have no satisfactory records of them.

The three families referred to above are the Chelydridae or snap-
ping turtles with a narrow cross-shaped plastron, large head and long
tail ; the Kinostermidae, or mud turtles, in which the plastron has ten
or eleven plates and is divided into three parts, a fixed middle portion
and a front and hind portion, both of the latter, or at least the front
part being capable of being moved so as to partially close the shell,
and the Testudinidae or terrapins, in which the plastron has twelve
plates and is either wholly fixed or divided into only two portions,
which are movable on a central hinge.

64 Journal of the Mitchell Society \Srptrinhrr

Only one species of snapping turtle occurs in our State, and this
usually goes simplj- by the name of "turtle," all our other species being
known as terrapins in this State. The snapper is the largest and the
ugliest of our species reaching a weight of 25 pounds, and is also the
one most frequently locally eaten, being in fact quite palatable. It
is a voracious and vicious reptile, wholly carnivorous, and capable of
inflicting a painful wound if carelessly handled. Its eggs are white,
soft-shelled and spherical.

The second family includes two of our species, which much re-
semble the snapping turtles in habits, but differ in the broad plastron
and smaller size, neither reaching a length of more than about four
inches in the shell. The mud turtle has the head unstriped, and the
plastron nearly as large as the shell opening, wiiile the musk turtle has
the head with yellow stripes and the plastron considerably smaller
than the shell opening. The latter is more of a deep water animal,
the former more of a shallow water form, preferring to hunt for its
prey with its shell half in, half out of the water. The eggs are
elongated, hard-shelled and white.

The balance of our turtles belong to the Testudinidae and all ex-
cept one are aquatic and have wholly tixed plastrons.

The exception is the Box Turtle, commonly called Highland Terra-
pin in this State, which is mainly an inhabitant of damp woods, though
I have found specimens buried in the wet mud of a swamp in a
place where in a wet season they would have been fifty yards from
shore. The short high arched shell and the moveable plastron which
closes the shell completely when the animal has withdrawn its head
and limbs within, distinguishes this from all our other species. Its
food consists of fruit, succulent leaves of plants, and living or dead
animals of any kind it can capture.

The remainder of our species differ but little in habits, all being
acpiatic inhabitants of pools and streams seldom leaving the water
except to deposit their eggs, which are elongate and soft-shelled.

Roughly speaking, they divide into two groups, the smaller pond
turtles with a smooth shell without variegated markings, and the
larger terrapins, collectively often known as river terrapins, yellow-
bellies, sliders or cooters, which have the shell almost invariably wrin-
kled or keeled or both. The former rarely attain a length of over
five inches, the latter are from eight inches to a foot or more long
when adult.

19.C0] Turtles of North Carolina 65

The small pond terrapins inclnde onl.y three of onr species, the
speckled terrapin in which the head and shell are marked with round,
yellow dots, the mountain terrapin with the yellow markings confined
to a yellowish patch on each side of the head just behind the eye, and
finally the painted turtle in which the shell has red markings around
the edges of the shell. The latter is the larger, attaining a length of
five inches when adult, the other two not reaching more than four.
The first and last are present in the greater part of our State, the
raiountain terrapin, in or near the mountain region only.

Of the larger terrapins we get five species of sliders proper, the
long-necked chicken turtle and the diamond-back terrapin, the last
being a salt marsh species.

The sliders are the largest of the group, some of them attaining a
length of over a foot in the shell and a weight of ten pounds. The
various species inhabit ponds and large streams and are most plentiful
in the Mississippi Valley and the southeastern States.

I cannot say much as to the habits of this group, but of the two
species which formerly constituted our Raleigh representatives, one
(Pseud oiiys concinna) seemed to be more herbivorous in its habits,
and the other (P. scripta), more omnivorous, eating flesh as well as
plants.

The species are keeled when quite young, and the known young of
all species with which I am acquainted are beautifulh' variegated with
yellow and brown or green. Older specimens lose the keel and much
of the color pattern disappears, so that many species look totally dif-
ferent when young than when adult.

The chicken turtle enters our list on account of its being recorded
from Beaufort in Barbour and Stegneger's Cheek List, Of the habits
of the animal in nature I know nothing but it differs in some respects
from all our other turtles. The neck is very long, awkwardly long
in fact, the shell is high and narrow, but rounded above, not keeled
and the color pattern is a large meshed net work of narrow yellow lines
on a brown ground. On dissecting out a specimen another marked dif-
ference appears, the free portion of the ribs (between the vertebrae
and the costal plates) is long, slender and rounded instead of being
short, broad and flat as in all our other turtles.

The diamond-back terrapin, the terrapin of the restaurants, is a
salt marsh species, found only along the coast and may be recognized
by the keeled shells and by the concentric lines on each plate from

66 Journal of the Mitchell Societv [September

which it gets its name. While the article of diet known as terrapin
should come from this species, yet as a matter of fact the sliders are
also to a large extent shipped to market, though, so far I know,
not from this State.

One more group of turtles may be alluded to, namely, the soft-
shells, which occur in the Mississippi Valley and the Southeastern
States, but have not as yet been recorded from North Carolina.

They have flat, orbicular bodies, a long neck, and a long pig-
shaped snout, and though the edges of the lips are fleshy, yet within are
sharp-cutting edges which can inflict a painful wound. The species
grow to a larger size than any of our inland turtles except the snap-
per, and are wholly carnivorous in diet.

Little has been said about the recorded distribution of our species
and actually but little is known.

Raleigh, as usual, furnishes the best re-.'ords, with 7 species, Beau-
fort comes next with 4 marine and 7 inland forms, while no other
locality (except Lake Ellis with 6 and Greensboro and Chapel Hill
with 4 each) gives us records of more than one or two species.

Yet we may reasonably infer that excepting the mountain terrapin,
which is confined to the mountains, and the diamond-back, which is a
salt-marsh species of the coast, our prevailing forms must range from
the edge of the mountains to the coast, though some of the sliders
probably are only found in the eastern half of the State and the status
of a few is quite problematical.

A key to practically all eastern turtles follows, bj' eastern, I mean
forms that are found east of the Mississippi, excluding the strictly
Mississippi Valley species. The key will probably enable a tolerably
intelligent person to identify most of the forms included with rea-
sonable accuracy.

Species already recorded from North Carolina are preceded by a
serial number, the rest are in italics and unnumbered, and the name
is followedby the name of State nearest to North Carolina \u which
the species has been taken.

Key to the Turtles of the Eastern United States

1. Limbs long, flat and paddle like : front limbs with not more
than two claws each. IMarine turtles. See 2.

1. Limbs not paddle like, front limbs with three or more claws
on each. Land and Freshwater Turtles. See 6.

1920] Tt/rtles of North Carolina 67

2. Shell without horny plates, covered with a black leathery skin,
and with seven longitudinal ridges down back. (1) Leatherback Sea
Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) .

2. Shell with horny plates without longitudinal ridges. See ^.

3. Carapace mottled with yellow, and covered with loosely over-
lapping plates. Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretmochelys imhricata).
Tropical and subtropical seas.

3. Carapace with smooth, not overlapping, plates. See 4.

4. Claws on front limbs one each, carapace mottled with yellow.
(2) Green Sea Turtle {CheJoma mydas).

4. Claws on front limbs two each, carapace without yellow mot-
tling. See 5.

5. Plates on under side of bridge three. (3) Loggerhead Sea Turtle
(Cfl.- etta caretta).

5. Plates on under side of bridge four. (4) Bastard Turtle {Ca-
retta hempi) .

6. Shell covered with horny plates. See 7.

6. Shell covered with a leathery skin, form flattened and orbicular.
Soft-shelled Turtles (Family Trionychidae). See 37.

7. Plastron narrow, cross-shaped, the plates of its central portion
nine. Snapping Turtles (Family Chelydridae). See 8.

7. Plastron not narrow and cross shaped, its plates more than
nine. See 9.

8. Under surface of tail with small scales : carapace with three
strong keels at all ages. Alligator Snapper {Macrohelys temminckii),
Georgia.

8. Under surface of tail with rather large plates, carapace with-
out strong keels in adult. (5) Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpen-
tina).

9. Plastron with ten or eleven plates : front and hind portions
of plastron hinged on fixed central portion and capable of partially
closing the shell. Mud Turtles (Family Kinosternidae). See 10.

9. Plastron with twelve plates : plastron not as in the mud turtles.
(Family Testudinidae). See 15.

10. Plastron comparatively small, hind portion capable of little
movement, pectoral plate trapezoidal. Musk Turtles. See 11.

68 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Scpteiiiher

10. Plastron comparatively large, both hind and front parts
moveable, pectoral plate subtriangnlar. Mud Turtles proper. See 12,

11. Head without yt^llow stripes: shell strongly keeled at all ages.
Keeled Musk Turtle {Kinosiemon carinatuiii), Georgia.

11. Head with yellow stripes, at least when young, shell not
keeled in adult. (6) Musk Turtle {Kinosternon odoratnm).

12. Carapace with three longitudinal yellow stripes : head with
yellow stripes. Baur's Mud Turtle {Kinosternon Ixiuri), Florida.

12, Carapace without stripes. See 13.

13. Head with yellow stripes. Louisiana ]\Iud Turtle (Kinoster-
non suhruhriun hippocrepis), Georgia.

13, Neither carapace nor head with stripes. See 14,

14, Plastron rather small, bridge very narrow, nasal shield deeply
notched behind, Florida Mud Turtle (Kinosternon steinclachneri),
Florida,

14. Plastron and bridge of normal size, nasal shield not notched
behind. (7) Common Mud Turtle (Kinosternon snhrubruni [pensil-
vanieton] ).

15. Plastron in two pieces, both movable on a transverse hinge,
and joined to the carapace by a cartilaginous suture. See 16.

15. Plastron in one solid piece, joined to the carapace by a bony
bridge. See 19.

16, Hind feet fully webbed ; shell rather long and narrow, cara-
pace with small yellow dots. Blanding's Turtle (Eniys hlandingi),
Ohio.

16. Shell short and high, hind feet little or not at all webbed.
Terrestrial species. Box Turtles. See 17.

17. Quadratojugal arch present. Shell usually with narrow ra-
diating lines on each plate. Hind feet somewhat webbed. Gulf Box
(Terrapene major), Georgia.

17. Quadratojugal arch absent. Carapace with large yellow
spots, or broad radiating stripes, or unmarked. See 18.

18. Claws on hind feet three each. Three-Toed Box Turtle
(Terrapene Carolina triumjuis) , Georgia.

18. Claws on hind feet four each. (8) Common Box Turtle (Ter-
rapene Carolina).

1920] Turtles of North Carolina 69

19. Limbs thick and club-shaped, hind limbs the smallest. Shell
with concentric striae on the plates, but not keeled. Terrestrial and
burrowing in habits. Gopher Turtle {Gopherus pohjphemus) , South
Carolina.

19. Limbs not club-shaped, hind limbs usually the largest. See 20.

20. Masticating surface of jaws narrow. See 21.

20. Masticating surface of jaws broad. See 23.

21. Shell with concentric striae on the plates, giving each plate a
lumpy appearance. Shell keeled. Terrestrial. Wood Terrapin
(Clemmys insculptus), New Jersey.

21. Shell smooth without striae or keel. Shell four inches or
less. See 22.

22. Head and carapace with small round yellow spots. (9)
Spotted Terrapin {Clemmys guttatus).

22. Carapace and head without round yellow spots, a yellow
patch on each side of neck.

(10) Mountain Terrapin {Clemmys nuchaUs),

Muhlenberg's Terrapin {Clemmys muhlenheyg), N. J.

23. Masticating surface of jaws with longitudinal ridge down
middle. See 24.

23. Masticating surface of jaws without longitudinal ridge ; shell
keeled. See 34.

24. Head and neck when extended about two-thirds length of
shell, shell high and narrow, with a reticulated pattern of narrow
yoUow lines in large mesh. (11) Chicken Turtle {Deirochelys .eticu-
laria) . H

24. Head and neck not more than half length of shell. See 25.

25. Size comparatively small, usually not more than five inches
in length of shell, shell smooth, no variegated markings on large
plates of carapace. Shell with red markings around the edge. See 26.

25. Size comparatively large, adults from five inches to a foot
or more in length of shell. Large plates of carapace usually with
variegated markings. Plates of shell usually with longitudinal
wrinkles. See 27.

26. Costal plates in line with the vertebrals so that the plates are
in straight rows across the shell. (12) Painted Turtle {Chrysemys
picta).

70

Journal op the Mitchell Society [September

26. Costal plates altering with vertebrals. Western Painted
Turtle (Chrysemys cinerea), New York.

27. Edg-e of one or both jaws serrated. See 28.

27. Both jaws with smooth edges. Plastron with more or less
black. See 32.

28. Both jaws serrated, with a notch at the symphisis of upper
jaw and a strong tooth or cusp on each side of it. See 29.

28. Lower jaw only serrated, no notch or tooth at tip of up]i(n-
jaw. Plastron wholly yellow. See 30.

29. Carapace red and black, plastron red. (13) Redbellied Ter-
rapin (Pseudemys rubriventris).

29. Carapace as above, plastron yellow and brown. Alabama
Terrapin {Pseudemys alahamensis) , Alabama.

30. Carapace smooth, head very small. Hieroglyphic Terrapin
{Pseudemys hieroglyphica), Tennessee.

30. Carapace with wrinkles on the costal plates. See 31.

31. Shell comparatively short and high, markings on costal plates
mainly transverse. (14) Florida Terrapin {Pseudemys floridunus).

31. Shell comparatively long and flat, markings on costal plates
confused or reticulated. (15) River Terrapin {Pseudemys conciiiiKi).

31. Shell with an evident keel at all ages. An upright yellow
bar behind eye. Black markings of plastron consisting of a roundish
black spot on each of the two front plates (sometimes on all or nearly
of the plates). (16) Yellow-bellied Terrajun {Pseudemy.'< scripfa).

32. Shell usually not keeled except in the very 3'oung. Black
markings of plastron usually more extensive and elongate. See 33.

33. An oval red spot behind eye, and conspicuous yellow lines on
head, neck and limbs. Red-Necked Terrapin {Pseudemijs elegans),
Tennessee.

33. No red spot behind eye, markings on head neck and limbs
obscure or lacking. (17) Troost's Terrapin {Pseudemys troosti).

34. Shell with concentric striae on the plates. Salt marsh species.
See 35.

35. Keel of each vertebral plate knobbed at tip. Southern Dia-
mond-Back Terrapin {Malaclemmys pileata),and subspecies, Florida.

1920] Turtles of North Carolina 71

35. Keels of the vertebrals not knobbed. (18) Diamond-Back
Terrapin {Malaclemmiis cenfrata) and subspecies.

36. Keel of shell even, not tuberculate. A triangular yellow spot
behind each eye. Map Terrapin {Graptem.ijs geographicus), Virginia.

36. Keels of vertebrals rising into knobs or tubercles on each
plate, an L-shaped yellow spot behind eye. Lesueur's Terrapin
{Graptemys pseudo-geographicus), Virginia.

37. Shell with tubercles in front in adult. See 38,

37. Shell without tubercles in front in adult. Brown Soft-
Shelled Turtle {Amy da mutica), Ohio.

38. Pale lines on top of head united just in front of eyes.
Southern Soft-Shelled Turtle (Amyda ferox), South Carolina.

38. Pale lines on top of head united near tip of snout. Spiny
Soft-Shelled Turtle (Amyda spinifera), Ohio.

Ealeigh, N. C.

A LITTLE-KNOWN VETCH DISEASE.

By Frederick A. Wolf.

Plates 2-6

Introduction

In the spring of 1918, a diseased condition of vetcli was noted to
be quite abundantly present upon the several species growing- in the
vicinity of West Raleigh, N. C, and in the following season, it was
so destructive to hairy vetch, Vicia villosa, that the plants were practi-
cally all killed before they had reached the flowering stage. Since
hairy vetch is the species most widely grown within the State as a
winter cover crop and as a feed crop to be utilized either for grazing or
for hay, this disease is to be regarded as of considerable economic im-
portance. All parts of the plant above ground were affected in a
manner quite characteristically different from any of the several dis-
eases which had previously' come under the writer's observation. It
soon became apparent, from microscopic examination, however, that
the disease was identical with one which had first been collected in the
summer of 1907 on the horticultural grounds of Cornell Universit}-,
Ithaca, N. Y. Since two concise mycological notes^ containing brief
descriptions of the appearance of the disease and of the structure
of the casual organism, comprise the only publications dealing with
this malady, investigations were forthwith begun. It is the present
purpose, therefore, to report upon these studies, which have been
conducted during the past three seasons, as a contribution to our
knowledge of the distribution, symptomatology and dissemination of
this disease and of the life history and structure of the pathogen.

Distribution

It has thus far not been possible to secure any considerable body
of data on the distribution of the disease either within the State or
within other States where species of vetch are cultivated. It has been
collected in North Carolina, however, within the counties of Forsythe,
Rowan, Montgomery, Granville, Wayne, and Wake and has been
observed^ by Mr. Roland McKee, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of

1 Atkinson, G. F., and Egerton, O. W. Protocoronospora, a new genus of fungi. Jour.
Mycol. 13; p. 185-186, 1907. Preliminary note on a new disease of the cultivated
vetch. Sci. N. S. 26; No. 664, p. 385-386, 1907.

2 From a letter to the writer, dated May 23, 1919.

[ 72 ]

1920] A LiTTiiE Known Vetch Disease 73

Forage Crop Investigations, Washington, D. C, to occur in South
Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Tennessee.
Even though the disease was first collected in New York as long ago
as 1907, plant pathologists generally are not familiar with it and speci-
mens have, for this reason, not found their way into the several large
herbaria. Since the disease has not received a common name, and has
the appearance of an anthracnose, it is, in this account, designated as
false anthracnose.

Appearance of the Disease

False anthracnose can first be noticed during November and De-
cember when the plants are still small. A brownish discoloration
which completely girdles the stems of the seedlings is at this time
manifest. This discoloration begins near the surface of the soil and
extends upward. The main stem becomes dwarfed in consequence
and is soon surpassed in size bj' other shoots which develop below
the lesions. In other cases, the main stem is so severely involved that
it dies or the entire plant may succumb. The disease may be observed
at any time during winter but makes little progress until spring. It
then spreads rapidly upward upon the stem, producing characteristic,
short, dark-brown to blackish streaks, Fig. 25, which may remain
isolated or become so abundant as to quite uniformly discolor all of
the invaded portions. Young stem lesions are at first grayish in color
and their change through light brown to dark brown or black is due
to the pigmentation of the mycelium within the cortical cells. Young
stems are killed early in the season whereas older woody ones may live
to maturity. The leaves, including stipules, petioles and leaflets, are
successively^ involved, beginning with the lowermost. The lesions,
except upon the leaflets, are entirely similar in outline to those upon
the stems and pass progressively through the same changes in color.
Those upon the leaflets may remain minute and circular with a
tendency toward being most numerous along the principal veins or
may appear as elongated, dark streaks. Affected leaflets are pale
green in color, especially when several hundred spots develop upon
a single leaflet, and become markedh^ chlorotic before the lesions
attain their mature depth of color. Fig. 24. They eventually become
dry and fall off.

The mature spots on the legumes or pods are so strikingly dis-
tinctive that there is no difficultv in distinguishing false anthracnose

74 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Septemher

of vetch from any other of the diseases of this plant. Young lesions
are at first manifest as irregular purplish diseolorations. The middle
line of these discolored areas becomes whitish following the rupture
of the epidermis by the acervulus or fruit-body of the fungus, Fig. 27.
The mass of spores which comes out may give to the center of the
spot a pale pink or salmon color. With age, the whitish portions of
the lesions become black and the purplish halo disappears as the
pods become dry. Mature lesions appear as black, elliptical or elon-
gated oblique spots. Fig. 28, their direction being no doubt due to
the oblique fibrous structure of the pod.

Etiology

False anthracnose is caused by an organism, Protocoronospora
nigricans, which was described, in 1907, l\y Atkinson and Edgerton
as the type of a new genus. Since, during the writer's studies, this
fungus was found to possess certain characters, to be described later
in this report, which are common to the true anthracnoses, compari-
son was made with the several species of Gloeosporium occurring on
vetch. Specimens of the two American species, Gloeosporium Davisii
E. et E. and G. Everhartii Sacc. et Syd., which occur on the legumes
and on the leaves respectively of Vicia autericana were loaned through
the courtesy of Dr. J. J. Davis, Madison, Wisconsin, by whom they
were first collected. The latter species was first described as G. ameri-
canut)! E. et E^., a combination which had been earlier employed for
a fungus occurring on Aranja olhens (described from Argentina l)y
Spegazzini in Fungi Arg. Pug. II,, p. 36). Even tliough these two
species differ in size of conidia, they will probably be found to be iden-
tical when submitted to cultural and inoculation tests. Certainly
they are distinct from the organism under consideration.

A form which occurs on stems of Vicia cracca in France and was
described^ as G. viciae Fautrey et Roum. is also very different and
beyond doubt is identical with Myxosporium viciae Fautrey. There
is furthermore no chance of confusing Protocoronospora nigricans
with G. tricolor Lind which produces a "frog-eye" leafspot disease of
Vicia cracca in Denmark.^

sProc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1893, p. 1C7.

* Fungi exsiccati precipue Oallici Centiirie LV. Revue MvcoIogi<iue annee 12, 1890,
p. 168.

i^Annales Mycol. 5: p. 277, 1907.

1920] A Littlp: Known Vetch Disease 75

Morphology of Protocoronospora nigricans

As was indicated in the preliminary accounts by Atkinson and
Edgerton, this fungns presents some very interesting .structural fea-
tures. They call attention, furthermore, to the fact that the gross
appearance of the disease, the character of the fruit body, the pale
pink or flesh color of the spores in mass, and their appearance when
hastily examined under the microscope suggest the genus Gloespor-
ium. Since, however, they found that the spores are borne at the
apices of the conidiophores not singly, but in whorls and that these
spores on germination bud in yeast-like fashion, characters not pos-
sessed by anthracnoses, they believed that the fungus resembled most
nearly, the thelephoraceous genus, Corticium, and consequently placed
it there in their provisional diagnosis. They did not find opportunity,
however, to make a critical study of its morphology.

Methods — In the present investigation, use was made of cultures.
of fresh material and of appropriately fixed and stained microtome
sections. For the latter purpose, portions of stems, pods, and leaves
were fixed in medium strength chromo-acetic acid solution and stained
with Flemming's triple stain according to the shortened method rec-
ommended by Harper. The most satisfactory preparations showing
the cytological features were secured when safranin was allowed to
act 1-2 minutes, gentian violet 10-20 minutes and orange G. 20-30 sec-
onds. Many of the details of the manner of penetration of the host
and of the development and structure of the acervuli could be sat-
isfactorily studied by microscopic examination of the epidermis
stripped from fresh material.

The germination of the conidia and their development into colonies
could be followed by repeated examinations of marked conidia planted
upon the surface of hardened agar plate cultures. For this purpose,
conidia were transferred from a lesion to a drop of sterile water on
a microscpoic slide. A loopful of this suspension of conidia was trans-
ferred to one edge of the agar plate and spread over its surface with
a zigzag stroke toward the opposite edge. No effort was made to
sterilize the surface of the lesion and in consequence mixed cultures
containing bacteria were always secured. The bacteria and conidia
were sufficiently well separated toward the ultimate end of the stroke,
however, to permit the isolation of single spore cultures or their de-
velopment and study in situ.

76 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

Acervulus — The aeervuli are either isolated or variously grouped
and are always subepidermal in origin, Fig. 21. They open to the
surface by the rupture of the epidermis in the form of a slit through
which the conidia escape, or by an irregularly lacerate opening.

The stroma upon which the acervulus is seated usuallj' extends
3 to 4 host cell laj-ers in depth and is made up of compact pseudopar-
anehyma which is at first colorless and becomes with age brown to
blackish, Fig. 13. This stroma completely occupies the interior of the
host cells without apparent modification of their cell walls. The
nourishing mycelium extends radiately from the periphery of the
stroma, Fig. 21, and is confined for the most part to the epidermal
and hypodermal cells. It has never been observed to be intercellular
and cells whose cavities are practically filled with mycelium contain
apparently normal intact nuclei. The h.yphae composing this
mycelium are also hyaline at first, but darken at maturity.
Since the mycelium does not penetrate the xylem tissues there is in-
sufficient interference with the conduction of water to prevent the
tips of the plant from growing, even when the stems are involved for
the greater part of their length.

The conidiophores arise within the epidermal cells and by their
elongation rupture the cuticle which persists for a time as a frayed
border at the margin of the acervulus. They are compactly arranged
and in section appear palisade-like. They are cylindrical to clavate.
in shape and quite variable in size, averaging 20-30 x 6-Sfi. Those
which are more slender are believed to be the structures which were
interpreted by Atkinson and Edgerton as conidiophores intermingled
with the basidia.

The conidia are borne in a whorl or crown at the apex of the
conidiophore. Fig. 1, 6, 9, 10 and 17. They are not formed on sterig-
mata, but arise as protrusions from the apical wall of the conidio-
phore. As they are abstricted, othei-s are formed in their places, re-
sulting in the formation of a mass of conidia which may ooze out
of the mouth of the acervulus. The conidia are oblong to sul)elliptical,
straight or curved, continuous, hyaline, granular and measure 12-20
X 3-3.5/., Fig. 2.

The setae are irregularh' disposed through the aeervuli. Fig. 13.
They are very abundantly present on j^oung vetch stems and can
readily be distinguished with a hand lens. They are only sparingly
present on old stems, however, and one may not be able to determine

1920] A Little Known Vetch Disease 77

their presence without access to serial sections of material embedded in
paraffin. Setae on leaf lesions can best be demonstrated by stripping
off the epidermis and making examination with the microscope, Fig.
21. Here acervuli will be found which have as few as a single seta or
even none, whereas adjacent^ acervuli bear as many as six to eight.
Setae have not been observed on affected pods, although many serial
microtome sections of j^oung and mature lesions have been studied.
Since the setae do not stand perpendicular to the leaf surface, it
would be difficult to get an entire seta in vertical section and they may,
for this reason, have escaped detection. Furthermore, their presence
in the genus Colletotrichum is known to be so variable that it is entirely
possible that they are never formed in pod lesions. These seta are
from two to three times the length of the conidiophores, are brown in
color, either one-celled or at most, one-septate and gradually taper to
a blunt point.

Nuclear phenomena

Since Protocoronospora was provisionally placed in the Thelepho-
raceae, a family in the order Hymenomycetineae whose members pos-
sess basidia which are binucleate in the young condition and which
arise from binucleate cells in the subhymenium, it was believed that
a study of the nuclear conditions in this parasite would be of prime im-
portance in determining its systematic position. Certain hymeno-
jnycetes have, of course, been described the cells of whose carpophores,
except the hymenial portions, and the nutritive mycelium were either
uninucleate or multinucleate."

Accordingly lesions on stems, which were found to be more favor-
able for study than those on other parts of the plant, were sectioned
and stained with Flemming's triple stain in a manner previously
stated. The nuclei were found to vary greatly in size, a condition
Avhich has been noted in many other fungi. The largest nuclei measure
about 3[x in diameter and are most easily observed in the cells at the
periphery of the acervulus, either within the epidermis or within
the more deeply lying host tissue. Here the hyphal cells are found to
contain one to five nuclei (Figs. 14 and 16). The conidiophores and
stromatic cells directly beneath them are found to possess consider-
ably smaller, more numerous nuclei, since as many as twelve is not

" An excellent review of this situation with a bibliography of all of the important con-
tributions to the subject is contained in a recent paper bv Pitzpatrick. H. M. Crytology
of Eocronartium musicola. Am. Jour. Bot. 5: No. 8, pp. 399-419, Pis. 30-33, 1918-

78 Journal op^ the Mitchell Society [Septeinher

an unusual number (Fig. 17). The conidia were likewise multinu-
cleate but none with more than three nuclei have been observed (Fig,
15). Whether the nuclei in conidia containing more than one nucleus
had arisen by mitosis following abstriction of the conidium from the
conidiophore or had migrated into the conidium before it had become
separated, could not be determined. It is entirely likely, however,
that multinucleate conidia arise from both conditions.

Germination of Conidia and Growth in Culture.

The organism causing false anthraenose has been isolated several
times in each of the three seasons during which it has been studied.
It has been cultivated on plain agar, dextrose agar, and vetch decoc-
tion agar, on sterilized vetch stems, steamed vetch seed meal, corn meal
and tapioca. On each of these media, the isolated colonies remain
small and black and are of the tj^pe shown in Figs. 22 and 23. When
the cultures are heavily seeded with conidia, a compact black mycelial
crust is formed over the surface.

The conidia are extremely variable in their method of germina-
tion. The most common method is budding in a yeast-like fashion,
Figs. 1 and 4, so that the tertiary sporidia may be observed to be
still connected seriatim with the parent conidia. These buds arise
terminally or more rarely as lateral projections. The conidia may be-
come once septate early in germination (Figs. 3 and 5) and may de-
velop one or more germ tubes similar to the anthracnoses.

The cells of the parent conidium may become enlarged and brown
walled within 48 hours and develop a rudimentary mycelium. Figs. 6
and 11. This mycelium may be so reduced that the original parent
cells function both as mycelium and conidiophores, Figs. 6 and 9,
in which case new conidia are formed as terminal buds. Quite an
extensive, thick, closely septate, brown mj^celium forms in other cases
which may remain sterile, bud sparingly from lateral conidiophores.
Fig. 10, or produce masses of conidia, Fig. 9. All the types of germina-
tion and growth illustrated in Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10 and 11 have been
observed in the same vetch decoction agar plate, made by sowing the
conidia on the surface of the agar. Conidia taken directly from
aeervuli have been found to be budding. In old cultures, abnormal
conidia of the types shown in Fig. 7 may occur.

When the conidia are sown on the leaves of hairy vetch, they will
within 48 hours, have become once septate, formed a slender tube

1920] A Little Known Vetch Disease 79

i

leading to a brown ovoid appresorium and penetration will have been
accomplished, Figs. 18, 19, and 20. The infection tube arises from
the lower side of the appresorium and effects entrance into the epi-
dermis by dissolution of the cell wall. This process was observed
several times in 1919 and confirmed during the present season. The
mycelium then grows rapidly into adjacent cells and forms a new
acervulus at the locus of infection. Within three to four days after
infection has occurred, new acervuli have matured and are shedding
their conidia, Fig. 21.

Life History of the Causal Organism

The false anthracnose fungus possesses only one type of repro-
ductive structure which in the vicinity of Raleigh, N. C, may be
produced at any time during the life of its host, or from early in
November until the first of July. The organism bearing mature acer-
vuli and conidia has been collected during each month of this eight-
month period. It is first evident upon the seedling plants and may
cause the outer cortical portions of the stems to be blackened to a
height of several inches above the surface of the ground, without,
however, invading the xylem portions. The disease makes little prog-
ress during wdnter, however, and only develops rapidly with the ad-
vent of favorable conditions which appear usually about the middle of
April. It then spreads upward and involves all of the above-ground
parts including the pods. Here it usually does not extend more
deeply than the skeletal or supportive tissue of the pod wall. Fig. 8,
but it may penetrate into the young seed. In case of severe infections
such as occurred in 1919, the seed are prevented from developing. Le-
sions on young seeds show as discolored areas which are not noticeable,
however, when the seed have matured. If mature seed taken from
directh' beneath lesions on the pod wall, are soaked in equal parts of
alcohol and glycerin for several months to permit them to soften, and
are sectioned, the hyphae or Protocoronospora will be found to have
permeated all parts of the seed. Such an infected seed is shown in
section in Fig. 12. The palisade-like cells of the young seed repre-
sented in Fig. 8-d, have become the Malphigian layer, Fig. 12-a,
whose outer cell walls are thickened and show a highly refractive
"light line."" Beneath is the scleroid la.yer subjacent to which is the

' An illuminating account of the structure of legume seeds to which the reader is
referred was prepared by Pammel, L. H. Anatomical characters of the seeds of Legu-
minoseae, chiefly genera "of Grav's Manual. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 9 ; No. 6, pp.
91-273, pis. 7-35. 1899.

80 Journal of thk Mitchkll Society [Scptcmhrr

vestigal nuecllai- tissue. TJie liyphae will be noted to be present in all
of these tissues which make up the seed coat and to extend into the
storag-e tissues of the cotyledons beneath, Fig. 12-e.

The initiation of the disease in fields not previously seeded to vetch
is due to the planting of infected seed. This is supported by field
observations during the past two seasons and by an experiment
planned to determine this point. Seed from affected pods were col-
lected b.y the writer in the spring of 1918, and were sown in a new
field. By April 15th of the following spring, the plants were abun-
dantly diseased.

The organism can remain alive during summer on old affected
parts which undoubtedly serve as a source of infection where vetch
is permitted to reseed itself. No evidence has been secured that the
organism possesses any other than the conidal stage although repeated
examination has been made throughout the entire year of material
kept out of doors in wire baskets. Were an ascigerous stage formed,
it is not believed that it could have escaped detection. Furthermore,
reproduction by conidia alone has occurred in cultures on the various
media previously mentioned. Some of these cultures have been main-
tained for an entire year without transfer but with the addition of
sterile water to replace that lost to evaporation.

Infection Experiments

The organism is such a virulent parasite, as indicated by field
observations, that little attention has been given to infection experi-
ments except to study the manner of infection. Three series of inocu-
lations were effected, however, upon plants grown in the greenhouse.
Two were made with a crude inoculum consisting of the water in which
diseased plants had been washed. This water was atomized upon
healthy plants and characteristic lesions developed within ten days.
The other was made with pure cultures of the organism grown on
agar. A watery suspension of conidia was in this case apj^lied with
an atomizer to healthy plants on May 19. The plants were then
shaded for 24 hours with a sheet of paper. By May 29 acervuli had
matured on the stems and leaves of these inoculated plants.

Host Plants

Frotocoronospora nigricans appears to be limited to species of
Vicia. It has been observed to be very destructive to Vicia sativa

1920] A Little Known Vetch Disease 81

and V. villosa although V. angiistifolia and V. dasycarpa are very re-
sistant to attack. This last-named species has been observed, for two
seasons, to grow to maturity practically free from disease although
it was intertwined with hairy vetch so severely affected that it failed
to form pods. The growing of Vicia dasycarpa, a species with appar-
ently all of the good characteristics of hairy vetch but which matures
a little earlier, instead of V. villosa, gives promise, therefore, of being
the most satisfactory way of combatting this disease.

General Considerations

Attention was called, as has been stated, by Atkinson and Edger-
to]i in their preliminary report, to two characters possessed by the
vetch organism which inclined them to believe that it was related to
Corticium. These characters were the simultaneous formation of
several spores from a basidium and the germination of these spores
by budding. No special significance was attached by these investiga-
tors to the observation that the spores were sessile and that new spores
were formed in place of those which had fallen away, although the
presence of sterigmata and of a definite number of spores are known
to be characters commonly present among the Basidiomycetes. Germ-
ination by budding appears to be not uncommon however, in both
Hemibasidii and Eubasidii. Whatever may be said of these diagnostic
characters, they should not be regarded as of as much importance in
determining whether or not the organism is an Hymenomycete as the
multinucleate character of the mycelium, conidia and conidiophores,
a phenomenon not known among the basidium-bearing fungi. Because
of this multinucleate condition, the organism is certainly not to be re-
garded as a member of the great group of fungi, Basidiomycetes.

Several characters, including the gross appearance of the spots,
the pale pink color of the spores in mass, the structure and type of
development of the acervultis, the presence of setae, the formation of
appresoria when conidia germinate on the host, and germination of
the type shown in Figs. 3 and 5, suggest its relationship to the form
genus Colletotrichum. The conidia in the anthracnoses are borne
singly at the end of the conidiophore whereas the vetch organism
forms a number simultaneously. Some of the anthracnoses in cul-
ture, because of the more or less glutinous nature of the conidia, are
known to give the hyphomycetous appearance shown in Figs. 6, 9,
and 10, Furthermore, none of the anthracnoses normally bud, as

82 Journal of the ]\Iitchell Society [Scpfriiilxr

does the vetch fungus. Mala and Paeottet' claim to have observed
budding in Gloeosporium nervisequu»i on sycamore but an examina-
tion of their figures indicates that they must have been working with
contaminated cultures. Such a criticism has, in fact, been offered ])y
several investigators, including Shear." These last two characters are
sufficiently distinctive to leave no reason for regarding the vetch
fungus as an anthracuose.

In the writer's opinion the genus, Protocoronospora, with its
single species, nigricans, should properly be transferred to the Melan-
coniales. It is realized that the various genera in the Fungi Imperfecti
are arranged artificially and not phyllogenetically and that it is, there-
fore, difficult to properly relate the vetch organism. Under this arti-
ficial scheme, Protocoronospora should probably be placed near Colle-
totrichum. Perhaps some other student of this interesting organism
will be able to find an ascigerous stage and thus to know its true
relationship.

The following brief Latin description is given and involves the
changes necessary in the transfer from the Thelephoraeeae to the
Melanconiaceae.

Protocoronospora Emend.

Acervulis innato-erumpentibus, in stromate pseudoparenchymatico,
ex 2-5 stratis cellularum constituto insidientibus, ramuli mycelici ul-
timi conidiphora efformatibus ; setulis atro brunneis ; conidia ses-
siles, hyalina incolora, continua, leves, plures (plurumque 4-8), ex
germinatione conidia conformia efformantes.

Protocoronospora Nigricans Atk. et Edg. Emend.

Plagulis angustis in legumibus foliis caulibusque, 2-5 mm. long.,
1-2 mm. latis; primum irregulariter purpurascentibus, centro al])i-
cantibus v. purpureo cinctis, deinde nigricantibus; stromate sub-
epidermatico e cellularis 6-9/x diam. constituto ; setulis paucis v. numer-
osis, continuis v. uniseptatis atro-brunneis, 60-90 x 5-7/x ; eonidiophoris
ex clavato subc.ylindraceis, 20-30 x 5-6/x, plurisporis; conidiis sessil-
ibus ex eonidiophoris conidia nova continuo gignentibus ; conidiis
in massa roseolis, ex oblongo ellipsoideis, granulosis, rectis vel curv-
ulis, 12-20 X 3-5.5/^.

* Viala, P. and Pafottet, P.. Levures et Kvstes lU's Gloeosporium. Ann. Inst. Nat.
Agron. V. 5: Fasc. 1, p. 31-73, Figs. 32, Paris. 1906.

" Shear, C. L. and Wood, Anna K. Studies of fungous parasites belonging to the
genus Glomerella. U. S. D. A. Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 252, pp. 11-110, Figs. 4, Pis. 1-18, 1913.

1920] A Little Known Vetch Disease 83

Hab. parasitice in Vicia sativa, V. villosa, V. angustifolia et V.
dasycarpa. Amer. bor.

An abundant supply of diseased material has been deposited in
the herbaria of the Missouri Botanical Garden and the Office of Myco-
log'ical Collections, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In conclusion, the writer wishes to express his appreciation and
thanks to Dr. C. L. Shear, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington,
D. C, and Dr. E. A. Burt, Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis,
Mo., for their opinions and suggestions, given after examination of
material, as to the taxonomy of this interesting fungus.

Summary

A vetch disease previously little known has been under investiga-
tion during the past three years.

It was first collected at Ithaca, New York, in 1907 and is now
known to occur also in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia,
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Tennessee.

The disease is caused by Protocoronospora nigricans and since its
gross appearance suggests an anthracnose, it may be appropriately
called false anthracnose.

Dark brown to black, elongated lesions may appear upon any of
the above-ground parts of the plant. Pod lesions are especially char-
acteristic since they are oblique to the margin of the pod.

The disease is initiated in new fields by the planting of infected
seed. This is demonstrated by the occurrence of hyphae within the
seed and by the appearance of the disease on seedling plants in fields
not previously seeded to vetch.

The fruit bodies of the parasite are subepidermal in origin and
possess setae, and a number of conidia are borne simultaneously at the
apices of the conidiophores. As these conidia fall away, new ones form
in their places. The conidia germinate in a yeast-like fashion, by sep-
tation and the formation of germ tubes, by developing a thickened,
short mycelium from which conidia are budded, and by the formation
of appresoria from which the infection tubes arise.

It has not been possible to develop an ascigerous stage either in
culture or upon affected plant parts kept out of doors.

All parts of the organism are multinucleate and primarily for this
reason, it is not believed to be related to Corticium, a thelephoraceous
fungus. It is believed to be more nearly like Colletotrichum, one of

84 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Septfinhcr

the Melanconiceae and is accordingly transferred to this family of
imperfect fungi.

Vicia sativa and V. villosa become severely affected under condi-
tions in which V. angustifolia aiid V. flasijcarpa remain practically
free from disease.

West Raleigh, N. C.

Explanation op Figures
PLATE 2

Figs 1-7 and 9-11 inclusive, are drawn to the same scale.

Fig. 1. Copy of unpublished camera lueida drawings of Proiocoronospora nigri-
cans, made by Dr. C. W. Edgerton in 1907. The conidiophores show several
stages of conidial formation in whorls at the apex. The formation of
yeast-like buds upon germination of conidia is also illustrated.

FiG". 2. Normal conidia of Protocoronospora nigricans taken from diseased
vetch.

Fig. ;■). Germination of conidia in hanging drops of tap Avater in which vetch
stems have been macerated. Septation and the formation of one or more
germ tubes is shown.

Fig. 4. The usual type of germination by budding as occurs in tap water,
plain agar or various kinds of nutrient agar, 24 to 48 hours old.

Fig. 5. A type of germination not uncommon on a variety of nutrient agar.

Fi<i. 6. In agar cultures in which certain conidia germinate as in Figs. 4 and
5, others form a thickened, short mycelium which si^orulates terminally or
from lateral branches.

Fig. 7. Abnormal conidia as appear in old cultures on corn meal.

Fig. 8. Vertical section through a lesion on young vetch pod.

(a) Conidia, conidiophores and fungous stroma;

(b) Hypodermal parenchyma occupied by intracellular mycelium;

(c) tSclerenchyma tissue of pod wall;

(d) Embryonic cells of the younger seed. The palisade-like cells be-
come the Malphigan layer in the mature seed.

Fig. 9. Characteristic short mycelium in agar cultures four days old, showing
abundant conidial formation.

Fig. 10. Much branched mycelium Avith few or no conidia found in the same
cultures as the condition represented in Figs. 6 and 9.

Fig. 11. Sterile mycelium from four day old nutrient agar plates.

Fig. 12. Section of mature infected vetch seed, showing the mycelium of Pro-
tocoronospora in the various tissues;

(a) Malphigian layer, the outer wall of wliose cells is very much
thickened and shows the characteristic ' ' light line ' ' so common in
seeds of eguminoseae;

(b) Scleroid layer;

(c) Vestigal nucellar tissue;

(d) Epidermis of the cotyledon;

(e) Cotyledonary tissue abundantly filled with starch.

PLATE 2

i^H^'^dx^

PLATE 3

PLATE 4

•. -N

,. ■. ' --.C-A * ■•.'•,.- , \ ■• V '••"''•- <-• ■- .'.. ,.-■- .•*■

v-'U-:. •' ■

•. .-':-*./-■. ^:r/

•' V ■ ■ -.^ .V • ■ '- V^ ')'>,''-, -f ' ,' '."4

PLATE 5

PLATE 6

% \ Pj^ '-^,

-^^~^] A Little Known Vetch Disease

85

PLATE ;-J
Figs. 13, 18, 19, and 20, are drawn to tlie same scale; the magnification of Fios

14-17, inclusive, is alike. "

Fig. 13. Acervulus in cross section of Protocoronospora on vetch stem The

stroma extends 3 to 4 host cell layers in depth.
Fig. 14. Multinucleate mycelium taken from the margin of an acervulus
Fig. 15. Variation in size and shape of conidia and in the number of nuclei
liG. 16. Multinucleate cells from beneath the stroma.
Fig. 17. Multinucleate conidiophores and cells of the stroma.
Fig. 18. Germination of conidium on upper leaf surface of hairy vetch. The

formation of the appresorium is followed by infection within 36 to 48 hours
Fia 19. Infection through the epidermis on the lower surface of the leaf
Fig. 20. Penetration by conidia lodged on the upper leaf surface.
Fig. 21. A surface view of an acervulus six days after inoculation.

PLATE 4
Fig. 22. Colonies of Protocoronospora nigricans, one week old, on vetch de-
coction agar.
Fig. 23. Two week's old cultures on the same medium.

PLATE 5
Fig. 24. Lesions on leaves of hairy vetch.
Fig. 25. Stones with elongated, dark brown to black lesions.

PLATE 6
Fig. 26. Pods showing the oblique oblong lesions typical N)f false anthracnose
±IG. 27. Young lesions with whitish centers on young pods. The pod at the

extreme left of the series had purplish discolored areas but fruit bodies

of the causal organism have not yet been formed.
Fig. 28. The dark oblique areas are lesions on mature pods.

NOTES ON THE MOSQUITO FAUNA OF NORTH CAROLINA

By Franklin Sherman

For many j'ears the Division of Entomology, State Department of
Agricultnre at Raleijih, has been accumulating records of the dilTer-
ent species of mosquitoes known in the State, the localities M'here
found, the months when present, etc. Recently this subject has been
assumed as one of our regular projects of work. The data included in
this paper were not gathered by the author alone, — Mr. R. W. Leiby, of
our Division, gave a paper on mosquito control before this body a
year ago, and is actively contributing to our records, — so also is Mr.
C. S. Brimley. Mr. G. M. Bentley, formerly with the Division, con-
tributed a number of records. Dr. Harvey P. Barrett, of Charlotte,
has furnished a large number of records based chiefly on rearings
from the larvae, and further work with him is conteziiplated for this
3'ear. Mr. Max Kisluik of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology, stationed
at Wilmington, has furnished records from that locality. Many of
our determinations have been made by authorities at Washington,
notably Dr. H. G. Dyar and the late Messrs. Coquillet and Knab.

The interest in mosquito control was accentuated in the State dur-
ing the recent war by the work done under the Public Health Service,
notably" around the camps at Charlotte and Raleigh and shipyards at
Wilmington. Since hostilities ceased a number of other comniunities
in the State are undertaking control work in co-operation with the
Public Health Service.

The importance of mosquitoes as pests of man need be only briefly
mentioned : — it has been abundantly proven that malaria and yellow
fever are transmitted by them. There are large areas, even in this
State, where land values and crop production are lower than should
be on account of malaria. We have had yellow fever cases in past
years, — the particular species of mosquito which transmits yellow
fever is a fully-established member of our fauna. The irritation,
vexation and unrest caused by our many species which merely bite,
are known to all.

The main outstanding features of mosquito biology may be sketched
as follows : The adult female mosquitoes lay their eggs or or near
water. The larvae, called "wrigglers", Avhich hatch from these eggs
live in the water, coming to the surface for air. As they are frail

1 86 J

1920] Notes on the Mosquito Fauna of North Carolina 87

little creatures quiet waters not violently agitated by storms and rapid
currents, are most favorable to them. This often means stagnant
water, but not necessarily so. Completing its larval life within a
week or longer, it changes to a pupa, which stage lasts for a day or
longer, when it emerges as an adult, winged mosquito. The length
of life of the adult is indefinite, — some live over winter, some species
have been kept alive in summer for two months or more. Adult mos-
quitoes usually fly for distances of less than a mile, — but some species
are more migratory, and with favorable light winds may travel much
longer distances.

The chief features of mosquito control can be briefly outlined as
follows: (1) Drainage of stagnant or standing water when practi-
cable; (2) straightening and clearing of drains to secure prompt
disposal of the flow; (3) oiling of such waters as may still serve as
breeding places; (4) stocking with small insect-eating fishes of such
waters as cannot be guarded by other means; (5) screening of houses;
(6) use of smudges, lotions, perfumes, etc. Accepting one mile as the
general limit of flight, the Public Health Service extends the drainage
work for one mile beyond the limits of the camp, yard, town or other
particular area to be guarded.

Most rules have exceptions,^ — and although mosquitoes adhere
quite closely to the general principles just laid down, yet there are
certain species which are exceptional in certain particulars and unless
we know something about these exceptions, and how to allow for
them, — we are liable to unpleasant and disappointing surprises, — and
the public, often inclined to snap judgment, may criticise and even
abandon control work which is really well done, because of the inter-
vention of exceptional circumstances. Thus the control work in vicin-
ity of Wilmington might be ever so well done, — it might almost, it
might entirely eliminate malaria, — yet a favoring breeze might bring
into that city countless thousands of mosqutoes of the species Aedes
sollicitans which breed in the salt marshes of the coast ten to twenty
miles away, and which is known to migrate for long distances. Such
an invasion, temporary though it may be, might arouse much criti-
cism. A house may be "screened," yet small species of mosquitoes
may easily crawl through the meshes of an ordinary fly-screen. A
pool may be oiled and yet the mosquito Mansonia perturbans may
breed from it, because the larva of this species does not come to the
surface for air but lives in the saturated mud about the roots of
aquatic plants.

88 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

There are many variations in exact habits, — certain species are
especially prone to enter houses for human victims, others seldom or
never do this, — the larvae of certain species predominate in rain-bar-
rels or cisterns, while others are seldom found there, — certain species
are active chiefly after sundown, others are equally or more active
during the day, — certain species are very averse to fl.ying in a breeze,
others take advantage of it to cover long distances. The importance
of ascertaining which, if any, of the disease-bearing mosquitoes occur
in any locality, is self-evident. This cannot be done by disease-records,
for we have no yellow-fever records at present, but we do have the
yellow-fever mosquito — so far as we know, it would onl^y require the
in-coming of a sufferer from this disease, at the opportune season, to
start an epidemic. Hence, it requires the study of the mosquitoes
themselves, the study of the mosquito-breeding waters, and the record-
ing of all possible data on each separate species before we can claim to
have adequate scientific data bearing upon the mosquito problem as
a whole. And this phase of the subject, being the strictly entomolo-
gical part of it, is the one which claims our chief attention in this

The entire list of species for the State, so far as ascertained, in-
cludes 32 species, while it is probable that from 10 to 15 more yet
await discovery.

It so happens that we have no positive record of any adult mos-
quito being taken in February, but we have records for every other
month of the year.

The localities whose mosquito fauna is best known are : Charlotte,
with a list of 23 species ; Wilmington, with 15 species ; Raleigh, 13
species; Blowing Rock, 5; Henderson County, 5; Havelock (Craven
County), 5. Twenty-three other localities have from 1 to 4 species
on record.

Let us now adopt the convenient division of the State into three
main regions : eastern, central and western.

1. Eastern. This we will consider to include all from the coast
to Raleigh and Southern Pines but not including either of those two
localities. Twenty-one distinct species of mosquitoes have been taken
in this region, — of these, five species have not been taken in either of
the other regions, so far as our present records indicate, they are
exclusively eastern, — nine of the species have been taken in both the
eastern and central regions but not in western, — while the remaining
seven species have been taken in all three regions.

1920] Notes on the Mosquito Fauna of North Carolina 89

2. Central. We will consider this region to include Raleigh and
Southern Pines and westward to the foot of the Blue Ridge, including
Tryon. This reckoning places Raleigh and Charlotte (comparatively
well-worked localities) in this area, and gives it a predominance, for
the present, in the number of species on record. Twenty-seven species
of mosquitos have been taken in this Central region, — eight of which
have not yet been taken in the other areas, — nine (as before men-
tioned) have been taken in central and eastern regions but not in the
west, — three have been taken in both central and western areas but
not in the east,- — -the remaining seven have been taken in all three
regions.

3. Western. We will consider this region to include the strictly
mountain area of the Blue Ridge and west of it. Ten species -of
mosquitoes have been taken in this region, none of which are confined
to it, — three of them having been taken in the western and central
areas only, — the other seven being ones which have been taken in all
three regions.

It is probable that further studies will show some of the species
which are now known only in our central area to occur in the
eastern area also. Dr. Barrett has taken one or more southerly species
at Charlotte, which is further north than they were before known to
occur, and such species are very likely to occur in our eastern region
whose general fauna appears to be more southerlj^ than at Charlotte.
Indeed, the general showing would no doubt be considerably altered
in its details, if our knowledge of our mosquito fauna, and its distri-
bution, were as complete as we hope eventually to make it.

Already enough is known to indicate that in number of species
the central section of the State will compare with the eastern, what-
ever disparity there may be in numbers of individuals, — even if all
of the species now known in the central region are eventually found
in the east, and if no more were found in the central region, its present
list of twenty-seven species is sutScient to show that it has a mosquito
fauna worthy of consideration. Owing to the presence of larger un-
drained areas it is undoubtedly true that the total mosquito popula-
tion is the greatest in the east, and for the opposite reason, least in
the mountains. As yet the mosquito fauna of the mountains has been
least explored. A complete list from that region would probably show
a surprising variety, but the areas for breeding are more restricted.

90 Journal of tiii: Mitchell Society [Septeinhcr

Adult mosquitoes have been found in our State virtually throujjh-
out the year. The number of species which have been taken in each
of the several months is as follows: January 2; February none, it
so happens ; March 3 ; April 5 ; May 13 ; June 14 ; Juh' 13 ; August
21 ; September 9 ; October 10 ; November 5 ; December 3. Of the ma-
larial group two species have been taken at all seasons, these winter-
ing in the adult stage, — the third species of the malarial group h?*^
been taken from March to September, inclusive. The yellow-feve.
mosquito has been taken June to November, inclusive. The species
which perhaps breeds more abundantly than any other in eaves-troughs,
cisterns and rainbarrels and which is our most common house mos-
quito, has been taken April to November, inclusive. The exceptional
species whose larva lives in mud at the roots of water plants and
which, therefore, would not be wholly eliminated by the usual means
of control, has been taken in all three regions of the State in the
months of June, July and August.

With so many species of mosquitoes in ever^" section (and every
other State in this part of the country has a comparable list if
worked up and put on record), and with many of them presenting ex-
ceptions to the usual rules of mosquito life, — the intelligent and in-
formed citizen will not expect perfect, absolute, complete results from
any system of control work. There will be occasions when mosquitoes
become abundant, by local breeding or by invasion from outside, in the
best-protected areas, — they may even develop in unsuspected places
inside the house itself.

It has not been our purpose to here discuss the details of control
further than already mentioned, — rather it has been our purpose to
give an idea of the mosquito life of the State as a whole, so far as now
known.

Notes on the Species

Arrangement is alphabetical. Man.y of the notes are from Smith
"Report of Mosquitoes of New Jersey," or Howard, Dyar and Knab
"Mosquitoes of North and Central America."

1. Aedes atlanticus, Dyar and Knab. An inhabitant of swamps and woods.
Not known to invade houses. Taken in east part of State, — May, June and
August.

2. Aedes atropalpus, (Coq.) D. and K. A small species, rather northern.
Taken in central and west parts of State, — no record as to month.

J920] Notes on the Mosquito Fauna op North Carolina 91

3. Aedes timaculatus, (Coq.) D. and K. A southerly species. Life and
habits not fully known. Larvae taken at Charlotte in July.

•4. Aedes calopus, (Meigen) D. and K. This is the species which trans-
mits yellow fever. Plies and bites in day. Invades houses. Taken in east and
central parts of State, — June, July, August, September, October and November.

5. Aedes canadensis, (Theobald) D. and K. Larvae in woodland pools.
Adults seldom leave woods. Of wide range, but as yet taken only in east and
central parts of State, — April, May, June, July and August.

6. Aedes mitcliellae, (Dyar) D. and K. A southeastern species. Taken at
Wilmington in December,

7. Aedes sollicitans, (Walker) D. and K. A coastwise species, the larvae
living chiefly in salt marshes, but also in brackish or fresh water. Known to
fly as much as 40 miles inland. Taken at Wilmington and Beaufort on our coast,
and recorded at Charlotte where perhaps carried by train, — June and August.

8. Aedes sylvestris, (Theobald) D. and K. One of the species which fre-
quents porches and sometimes enters houses. A common species of wide range.
Taken in east and central parts of the State, — May, June, July and August.

9. Aedes taeniorhynchus, (Wied) Busck. A coast-wise species of rather
small size which migrates, but not so far as sollicitans. Bites in daytime. Does
not seem to enter houses, but has been taken on porches. Taken at Wilmington
and Beaufort on our coast, — May, June and August.

10. Aedes tormentor, D. and K. A southern species taken as far north as
Arkansas and recorded for Charlotte in our State, — without record as to month.

11. Aedes triseriatus, (Say) D. and K. A species whose larvae live chiefly
in water caught in holes in trees, — the adult being a ready biter in the woods, but
not entering houses. Taken in all three regions (east, central and west) in our
State, — May, June, August, September and October.

12. Anopheles crucians, Wied. This is one of the malarial group and
known to be a carrier of the "aestivo-autumnal" form of malaria, but not of
other forms. It bites late in day and early morning as well as at night, and
readily enters houses. Taken in east, central and west parts of our State, —
March, May, June, August and September. As Avith others of this group the
body is usually tilted at an angle while biting. Wings spotted.

13. Anopheles quadrimaculatus, Say. This species is believed to be the most
frequent carrier of malaria. Winters as adult. Taken in east and central parts
of the State, not yet in the west, — January, April, July, August, September, Octo-
ber, November and December. Body tilted when biting. Wings spotted.

14. Anopheles pimctipennis, Say. Has been apparently proven to transmit
malaria, but not believed to do so as freely as the preceeding. Winters as
adult. In our State this seems to be the most common of the three species of
the malarial group. Taken in east, central and west parts of State in every
month with one exception (Feb.) Body tilted when biting. Wings spotted.

15. Coclodiazesis harheri, (Coquillet) D. and K. Breeds in water in holes
in trees, and sometimes present in woods when country is so dry than few other
kinds are present. A small species. Our only State record is from Tryon at
foot of mountains, without mention of the month.

92 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

16. Culcx floridanus, D. and K. A very small southern species, recorded
from Charlotte for July and August.

17. Culex melanurus, Coquillett. A dark-colored species of wide range
which apparently does not- bite. Our only record is from White Lake (Bladen
County) in May.

18. Culex pcccator, D. and K. A rather small southern species, recorded
from Arkansas, and from Charlotte in our State in August. Apparently a fre-
quenter of caves and tree-holes. Not known whether it bites.

19. Culex quinquefasciatus, Say. This is probably our most abundant and
universally-present house-frequenting mosquito. Larvae abundant in raiubarrels,
cisterns, troughs, temporary pools, sluggish and foul water, etc. Corresponds to
the common C. pipiens of the northern States. Taken in east, central and west
parts of the State, — April, May, June, July, August, September, October and
November.

20. Ctilex restuans, Theobald. In general character like the preceeding,
but not so abundant, nor breeding in so foul water. Our records are from the
central and west parts of the State, — June and October.

21. Culex salinarius, Coquillett. A species of wide range, though also occur-
ring close to coast, hence the name. Enters houses. Taken in east and central
parts of the State, — May, August, September^ October and November.

22. Culex territans, Walker. A rather small, dark species which perhaps
does not bite persons. Our only records are for Charlotte and Blowing Rock,
— August.

23. Culiseta inornatus, (Will.) Dyar. A rather large species which freely
bites cattle and horses, perhaps in preference to man. Of wide range but our
few records are from Wilmington and Charlotte, — INIarch.

24. Mansonia perturbans, (Walk.) Dyar. The larva lives in mud at roots
of aquatic plants, not coming to surface for air. A species of wide range.
Enters houses. A fierce biter. Taken in east, central and Avest parts of the
State, — June, July and August.

25. Megarhinus septentrionalis, Dyar and Knab. A very large mosquito
with metallic blue lustre, often found on flowers. Taken east, central and west
in the State, — July, August, September and October.

2(5. Ortlwpodomyia signifier, Coquillet. A wide-spread species not positively
known to bite. Our only records are from Raleigh and Charlotte, — October.

27. Psorophora ciliata, (Fab.) Rob. — Des. A large species with erect scales
on the legs giving fringed appearance. Ready biter and goes indoors, but not
usually abundant in houses. Taken in eastern and central parts of State, — May,
June, August, October.

28. PsoropJiora columhae, Dyar and Knab. A day as well as evening biter.
Seldom indoors. East and central parts of State, — May, July, August.

29. PsoropJiora discolor, Coquillett. Our only record is from Charlotte, —
July and August.

30. Psorophora houmrdi, Coquillet. A large species, of which our only
record is Charlotte, — without indication of month.

1920] Notes on the Mosquito Fauna of North Carolina 93

31. PsoropJwra sayi, Dyar and Kiiab. A species of wide range, a severe day
biter, but apparently not usual in houses. Our records are from east, central
and west parts of the State, — May, June, July, August and September.

32. Wyeomyia smithii, (Coq.) Felt. The larva of this species is known to
live normally in the water contained in the stems of pitcher-plants. The adult
is not known to bite. Our only record is from Boardman (Columbus County) —
larvae in pitcher-plant in April.

Raleigh, N. C.

AN INTERESTING FERTILIZER PROBLEM
By H. B. Arbuckle

Last summer a large number of farmers in Rockingham county suf-
fered almost total loss of their tobacco crop. It so happened that one
of these farmers used two bags of fertilizer that he had kept over from
the previous year. He observed that the rows of tobacco upon which
he used this old fertilizer to the very plant in the row where he
changed to the new fertilizer grew off well and produced well. All the
rest of his tobacco was stunted and never showed any growth except in
very rainy M-eather.

This was sufficient to fix suspicion upon the new fertilizer. This
led to my investigation. The fertilizer was marked "For Tobacco"
and the tag showed a guaranteed analysis, 8-2-2. On analysis the
fertilizer checked up very well as 8-2-2. The nitrogen was a little low
as determined by Kjeldahl, showing approximately 1.5. It is inter-
esting to note that when the nitrogen was determined by Dumas, it
ran distinctl}' higher.

The fertilizer was at once tried out on boxes of clover and rye at
the rate of 1,000 lbs. per acre and compared with a fertilizer prepared
in the laboratory to yield 8-2-2, the potash being supplied as potassium
sulphate and the nitrogen as sodium nitrate. In these experiments the
fertilizer under investigation showed up to tine advantage, showing
distinct advantage over the prepared fertilizer. Having no tobacco
plants at this time, the fertilizer was reported as good, but
the farmers insisted that it be tried out on tobacco. After
growing a lot of tobacco plants a set of boxes was prepared to test
this fertilizer in varying amounts and other fertilizers prepared with
potash and nitrogen from different sources. Having discovered that
the fertilizer under test contained over l/{ of chlorides and knowing
that chlorides were not good for tobacco, the chlorine was removed
from the fertilizer. It was found that the tobacco plants in the boxes
in which 600 lbs. was used in the row or 1,000 lbs. mixed with the soil
were nearly all killed. The few plants remaining were pale and sickly
and produced no growth in two months time. The plants in those
boxes fertilized with 1,000 lbs. of the fertilizer with the chlorine re-
moved grew nicely, comparing favorably with tlie best fertilizers pre-
pared for tobacco.

[ 94]

1920] An Interesting Fertilizer Problem 95

Knowing- that one per cent of chlorine could not kill tobacco, boxes
were prepared in which we used as much as 200 lbs. of sodium chloride
per acre. As was expected this did not injure the plants. The chlo-
rides do not affect the growth, but only the burning' quality of the
tobacco.

We next tried the fertilizer on tomato plants and found that these
were injured, but not as much as the tobacco plants. Then we investi-
gated various solutions of the fertilizer. We found it was the water
solution alone that injured the tobacco. A small plant in a beaker was
killed in twenty-four hours by the application of a solution that repre-
sented 2,000 lbs. per acre. Next we removed the organic matter by
prolonged heating, taking up the ash with hydrochloric, sulphuric
and nitric acids. The plants were injured not at all by the M^ater
solution of these salts, but little growth was shown, because the organic
matter unquestionably stimulates plant growth, as could be shown in
the study of stable manures. It was noted with interest that the nitric
acid solution gave after a time a most vigorous growth. This might
have been expected. We then tried water solution of the fertilizer
under investigation after heating for an hour at 120° for thirty min-
utes. We found that this solution when applied in quantities repre-
senting 1,000 lbs. per acre gave excellent results.

The toxic substance or substances present seemed to be removed
or changed by heat. We repeatedly demonstrated the good results
with the fertilizer thus treated. We now had the explanation of the
puzzling fact about the chlorine.. In removing the chlorides with silver
sulphate, heat was employed to avoid the loss of the phosphates. The
heat had destroyed the toxic substances in this case as in the case
of the straight samples.

B.y accident we discovered that the toxic substances are also re-
moved by leaving the fertilizer exposed to the sunlight in a warm
place, as a bottle containing the fertilizer was left for one week in
the balance room where it was exposed to strong light from the south.
Water solution of this exposed fertilizer had no effect whatsoever on
tobacco plants.

Thus it appears that there is an organic substance present in this
fertilizer, which is toxic to tobacco plants and tomato plants, while it
has no effect upon rye and clover. This toxic substance is made harm-
less by heating or by exposure to sunlight. What the substance is still
remains a puzzle. Thinking it might be a nitrogen compound, prob-

96 Journal of the Mitchell Society \Scpteni'ber

a])ly an amido eompouiid derived from decomposition of tankage or
some form of animal nitrogen, we determined the nitrgen in samples
of the fertilizer after it had been rendered harmless. The percentage
was higher than in the original sample. This, however, may be due
fact that the water content had been changed. Unfortunately, we had
not determined this in the original samples. AVe carried through a
set of experiments to see how many organic substances containing
nitrogen were toxic to tobacco plants.

These experiments showed several substances that were quite toxic,
notably the nitro phenols, pyridine and piperidiue. This was but a
confirmation of experiments conducted by Cameron. Here is an in-
teresting problem that deserves the attention of the fertilizer manu-
facturer, especially in this day, when he is ransacking the world to
find sources of potash and nitrogen. In the future will it not leave the
manufacturer liable if he sells a fertilizer with a guarantee that it will
grow a particular crop and it is found to injure it?

In this particular case the tobacco fertilizer did enormous damage.

It can be rendered harmless in a very simple way, but it is the
manufacturer's job to discover this and not the farmer's. This should
lead to the testing out of samples of every fertilizer sold for a par-
ticular crop.

Davidson, N. C.

AZALEA ATLANTICA ASHE AND ITS VARIETY LUTEO-

ALBA N. VAR.

By W. C. CoKER

Plates 1 and 7
For about eight years I have had under observation a striking spe-
cies of Azalea, a typical and abundant constituent of low, damp, pine
barrens of the coastal plain. My brother, James L. Coker, Jr., first
called my attention to the distinction between this species and A.
nudiflora, which blooms at the same time and with which it is often
confused by careless observers. The species is not included in the
treatment of the genus in the North American Flora by Dr. Small,
but in April, 1917, Mr. W. W. Ashe published in the Bulletin of the
Charleston Museum (13 : 26. 1917) a new species, Azalea ailantica, the
description of which agrees well with our plants except that the color
was said to be rose-purple or reddish. As our plant has essentially
white flowers throughout its range it seemed improbable that they
could be the same. However, on talking with Mr. Ashe he admitted
that the flowers were nearly pure white when open, thus removing the
principal point of difference. I have also now at hand a specimen in
flower from the type locality (Georgetown, S. C.) sent me by Mr.
T. G. Harbison on April 26, 1918, and find it the same as Hartsville
specimens in all essentials. T now have the plant (from Hartsville)
in cultivation in the Arboretum of the University of North Carolina,
where it flowered this year.

Azalea atlantica Ashe.

The typical form of the species, as I have observed it, may be
described as follows :

Shoots low, slender, strict, hairy or glandular when young, smooth
later, sparingly branched, about 1.5-55 cm. (6-18 in.) high, springing
from underground runners and thus forming extensive colonies ; leaves up to
about 4 cm. long and 1.7 cm. broad, elliptic to obovate, the base pointed at the
very short petiole, the tip with a short mucro, margin not recurved or slightly so,
ciliate with curved tooth-like hairs, upper surface smooth or sparingly pubescent,
the lower nearly smooth or moderately pubescent, grayish-green, the midrib not
ciliate (or ciliate, at least when young, in the Georgetown plants). Flowers
appearing during the Avhole of April, 3-4.5 cm. long, glandular and sparingly
pubescent or only glandular, not hairy, very fragrant, unfolding before the
leaves or in part lagging and simultaneous ; corolla tube 2-3 cm. long, expanding

98 Journal of the Mitchell Society [September

into the open throat, the acute petals with a spread of ?>-4 cm., color pure white
when open except for a blush of pink or purple on outside near base of ti'.])e;
the buds more pink. Calyx two-thirds to three-fourths as long as the fivary,
varying (in the North Carolina plant) to nearly as long, the strap-shaped lobes
blunt, unequal, and upright (recurved or revolute on drying at times), separate
to near or below the middle, glandular only or both glandular and with the
margin hairy; ovary about 4 mm. long and 3 mm. thick, style about 4-6 cm.
long, pale pink to greenish white, hairy (not glandular) over loAver half or two-
thirds, the knob-like stigma greenish brown; stamens well exserted (about
2 em.), but not nearly so much so as in A. nudiflora, Avhitish or pale green; pedi-
cels about 7-13 mm. long, pink or greenish. Mature pods about 2 cm. long and
6-7 mm. thick, pointed, somewhat curved, nearly glabrous, dark. Floral glands
reddish, very short-stalked, present on pedicels, calyx, ovary and on the outside
of the corolla tube and along the central keels of the spreading lobes. Odor
strong and very pleasant.

Azalea atlantica var. luteo-alba n. var.

Flowers smaller, white when open, the buds and opening flowers with a de-
cided yellowish tint ; not pinkish. Otherwise as in the type. Occurring in sim-
ilar habitats as the type but in separate colonies, and not intermixed. We have
found it only at Hartsville, S. C.

A well-marked species that is easily distino-nished from A. nudi-
flora, which occurs plentifully in the same territory, though rarely
intermixed. It differs in the white, very fragrant, and viscid-glandu-
lar (not hairy) tlowers with longer tubes, more open throats, much
larger calyx, shorter and stouter ovary, and less exserted stamens;
by the dwarf size and extensive underground runners ; and by the
absence of cilia on the midrib. The habitat is also not the same, A.
atlantica being found in low, damp, undrained pine flats of the coastal
plain, while A. nudiflora prefers the better-drained soil by ditches,
branches or bluffs and extends far beyond the range of the former.
Azalea viscosa, which is really nearest, is, of course easily distinguished
by large size, late flowering (late May to July), and different habitat
and habit. It is the only other Azalea of the region occupied by
A. atlantica and A. nudiflora, with the possible exception of the next.
Azalea canescens, which has the leaves whitish-pubescent below, occurs
on better-drained soil, is rose-flowered, is not viscid, and has the same
size and habit as A. nudiflora, which is very near. Compared with
specimens of A. canescens at the New York Botanical Garden our
plants were easily seen to be different. One plant from Orangeburg,
S. C, in the New York Botanical Garden Herbarium, labelled A.

1920] Azalea Atlantica Ashe 99

canescens but different from the others, may be our species. Azalea
glauca, which seems a small form of A. viscosa occurs from New Eng-
land to Virginia and blooms from June to July,

Azalea atlantica is one of the most conspicuous flowers of the damp,
flat woods of the low country, often covering acres under old field or
long-leaf pine, and scenting the air for a long distance with a frag-
rance that is far more pleasant than the much less obvious odor of
A. nudiflora. We have the plant from Georgetown, S. C, Hartsville,
S. C, and Brunswick County, N. C, and have seen it in New Hanover
County, N. C. It is probably distributed over most of the coastal
plain of North Carolina and South Carolina. The plants from Bruns-
wick County are a slightly different form from the South Carolina
plants. The calyx is not hairy, the leaves are smooth on both sides,
and the flowers are glandular only. In the Georgetown and Harts-
ville plants the calyx lobes are a little shorter and less fused, and are
quite hairy on the margin in addition to being glandular; further-
more, the flowers are slightly tomentose as well as glandular.

Plate I was painted by my niece, Dorothy Coker, from Hartsville
plants on April 25, 1915. It is 4/7 natural size. The photograph
(Plate 7) was made by me in Brunswick County, N. C, about half
way between Wilmington and Southport on April 6, 1918.

Chapel Hill, N. C. •

A NEW SPECIES OF ACHLYA

By W. C. CoKEK and J. N. Couch

Achlya Orion n. sp.

Hy])lial threads long, reaching a length of 1.5 ems. on honse-flies,
more slender than in most Achlyas, from 10-40/x thick close to base,
rarely up to 85/i, thick, often wavy; usually little branched and
pointed at tips when young ; becoming considerably branched with
age. Sporangia abundant, cylindrical, usually" borne singly on the
tips of the main hyphae in young cultures, renewed by cymose branch-
ing, often forming several clusters at regular intervals on the same
hypha, irregular and wavy in old cultures, 12-37 x 36-600/x (rarely
up to 900/i,). Spores 9-10/x thick, emerging as usual in Achlya, but
often falling to the bottom in an open group instead of forming a
sphere at the sporangium mouth. Oogonia abundant on flies, grubs
and vegetable media, spread over the entire culture from bases of
h3^phae to tips, giving the culture a lacy interwoven or net-work ap-
pearance ; the diameter 30-60/x,, commonly 32-48|U. ; usually borne singly
on long, crooked, recurved stalks which arise racemosely from main
hyphae and which vary in length from 2-10 times the diameter of
•the oogonia; often oogonial stalks ma.v branch bearing two
oogonia and rarel.y oogonia may be borne on a stalk which arises
directly from another oogonial wall ; very rarely intercalary ; oogonial
wall usually without pits (except where the antheridial tubes enter)
when grown on flies or grubs, but as a rule with pits when grown on
boiled corn. Eggs 1-8, usually 1 or 2 in each oogonium; 25-45/i, in
diameter, most 33-36/a, eccentric when ripe with one large oil drop ;
usually spherical, but often elliptical from pressure. Antheridial
branches almost always androgynous, usually arising from the oogon-
ial stalk itself, less often from the main hyphae ; rarely diclinous ; an-
theridia on about 75% of the oogonia, one or two on an oogonium,
tuberous; antheridial tubes obvious penetrating the oogonia and
reaching the eggs.

The species seems to be quite rare, having been recognized only
twice in considerably over a thousand collections, made by the senior
author and his students. It was found in some water and trash
collected from the west branch above the Meeting of the Waters

1930] A New Species of Achlya 101

(No. 6 of September 26, 1919), and in the same kind of material
from the branch in Battle's Park behind Dr. Pratt's residence (No. 4,
June 10, 1920). The description has been made from cultures de-
scended from a single spore.

Our plant can be distinguished (with the unaided eye) from most
other Chapel Hill Achlyas by the network appearance given it by
the oogonia being scattered over the entire culture from the bases
of the hyphae to the tips. Achlya race))wsn approaches this network
appearance more than any other species of Achlya but in the latter
the oogonia are not nearly so abundant nor do they extend entirely
to the tips of the hyphae. In some species, such as Adilya oblongata,
the oogonia are borne in a definite zone near the substratum and
from half to two-thirds of the length of the hyphae from the tips
backwards are without oogonia. In the Prolifera group the oogonia
are scattered more or less over the entire culture but the big hyphae
and long sporangia dissipate the net work appearance.

If we ignore the egg structure, the present species seems to be
closest to Achlya polyandi a Hildb. The two plants resemble each
other in the long, racemose oogonial branches which are recurved at
the tip ; in the often branched antheridial stalks which arise chiefly
from the oogonial branches ; and in the smooth oogonial walls which
are normally without pits except where the antheridia touch. The two
species are readily distinguished, however, by the difference in the
number of eggs in the oogonia, and in the size and structure of the
eggs. In Achlya polyandra the number of eggs varies from five to
twenty-five, the usual number being ten to fifteen, their average
diameter is 27ju, and they are said to be centric ; in A. orion the usual
number of eggs is one to two, the diameter of most 33-36ju,, with an
eccentric structure. In Achlya polyandra the sporangia are reported
as often not abundant, and secondary ones rare ; while in our plant
both primary and secondary sporangia are abundant. This species
is named for the nebula in Orion, which a photograph of the magnified
culture somewhat resembles. This photograph, together with draw-
ings by J. N. Couch will appear in a volume by W. C. Coker on the
Saprolegniaceae of the United States to be published soon.

DOUBLE NUMBER

VOL. XXXVI FEBRUARY, 1921 No8. 3 & 4

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

CONTENTS

Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society,
May, 1920, to December, 1920 103

James Jacob Wolfe, 1875-1920 no

The Chemical Behavior of Zirconium. F. P. Venable 115

A Pure Culture Method FOR Diatoms. Bert Cunningham .. . 123

The Occurrence of Unlike Ends of the Cells of a Single
Filament of Spirogyra. Bert Cunningham 127

Some Marine Molluscan Shells of Beaufort and Vicinity.

Arthur P. Jacot 129

Notes on the Thelephoraceae of North Carolina. W. C.

Coker 146

ISSUED QUARTERLY

CHAPEL HILL, N. C, U. S. A.

ENTERED AT THE POST OFFICE AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER

The Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

A. H. PATTERSON, President. *^

A. W. HOBBS, Vice-President.

J. M. BELL, H. R. TOTTEN,

Permanent Secretary. Recording Secretary.

Editors or the Journal:

W. C. COKER, Chairman.
J. M. BELL. COLLIER COBB.

Journal op the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society — Quarterly.
Price $2.00 per year; single numbers, 50 cents. Most numbers of former
volumes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Permanent
Secretary, at the University of North CarolLaa, Chapel Hill, N. C.

In addition to original papers on scientific subjects this Journal pub-
lishes the Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, and the
Proceedings of the North Carolina Academy of Science, as well as abstracts
of papers on scientific subjects published elsewhere by members of the Fac-
ulty of the University of North Carolina.

Published for the Society

by the

University of North Carolina

JAMES JACOB WOLFE
1875 1920

JOURNAL

SOTAfV ;■<.•■. A L

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

Volume XXXVI FEBRUARY Nos. 3 and 4

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY, MAY, 1920, TO DECEMBER, 1920

241sT Meeting— May 4, 1920

W. deB. MacNider — On the Relation of the Amount of Stainable Fat
in the Renal Epithelium to the Susceptibility of the Kidney to the
Toxic Effect of the General Anesthetics.
Frozen sections were made from fresh kidney tissue and stained
for fat with Scharlach R by Herxheimer's method. Such tissue
when obtained from puppies and young dogs shows fat as minute
dust-Hke particles in the epithehum of the ascending Umb of Henle's
loop. Kidney tissue obtained from old and very senile animals
shows a marked increase in the amount of fat in the ascending limb
of Henle's loop and fine dust-like particles of stainable fat in the
convoluted tubule epithelium. Kidney tissue obtained from natur-
ally nephropathic animals shows a large amount of stainable fat not
only in the ascending limb of Henle's loop but also in the convoluted
tubule epithelium. When such animals of different age periods and
naturally nephropathic animals are anesthetized by ether, the relative
toxicity of the anesthetic for the kidney is shown in the following
manner :

1. The puppies and young dogs continue to form urine during
the course of the anesthesia and remain responsive to diuretic solu-
tions.

2. A certain number of the adult and senile normal animals
become anuric and fail to respond to diuretic solutions. Other
animals in this group remain diuretic for the earlier part of the experi-
ment and later become anuric.

[103]

104 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Fehruanj

3. All the naturally nephropathic animals become anuric in the
early stages of the experiment and remain anuric and non-responsive
to diuretic solutions throughout the experiment.

A. W. HoBBS — Einstein's Special Relativity Theory.

The laws of Nature must be invariantive, that is they must be
so stated as not to depend upon any particular frame of reference.
All attempts to discover different values for the velocity of propaga-
tion of light in different directions have failed. We then assume the
constancy of the velocity of hght. This leads to the conclusion that
x^+y^+z-— C't^ must be changed into the same expression when we
refer to another system (i. e.) x^+y^-f-z- — c-t^ = x'2-fy''' + z'2— c^t'^.
The Lorentz transformation accomplishes this and is at the same
time consistent with experience. It is given by

x' = /3 (x - vt) where /3 = (1 - -j)~^

y'= y

z' = z

t' = ^(t-^')

Applying these equations we find that a length X2 — xi is shortened in

V" 1/

the directions of motion by the factor (1 - — ) ^2.

The paralellogram law for the addition of velocities is no longer

U + V

u + V but

1 +UV

These results would have very little interest to most of us if they
did no more than add very small corrections to our already compli-
cated system. The interest lies in the fact that they point to an
almost organic relation between space and time, so that we must
not consider space and time as being distinct concepts.

242nd Meeting— May 25, 1920

Dr. C. E. McClung, Professor of Zoology, University of Pennsyl-
vania — The Material Basis of Heredity.

The lecturer, covering the chromosome theory of heredity, in-
troduced the principal facts, including the speaker's own well known
discoveries showing a correlation between the presence in germ cells
of particular chromosome masses and sex. (H. V. W.)

1921] Proceedings of Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 105

Election of Officers:

President — A. H. Patterson.

Vice-President — ^A. W. Hobbs.

Permanent Secretary — J. M. Bell.

Recording Secretary— K. R. Totten.

Editorial Committee — W. C. Coker, chairman; J. M. Bell, Collier
Cobb.

243rd Meeting— October 19, 1920

H. V. Wilson — The Mode of Origin of the Nervous System in the
Vertebrate Embryo.

Some recent operative experiments made by Professor Hans
Spemann on the salamander embryo were described. These experi-
ments showed that a patch of embryonic tissue might be developed
into spinal cord, brain, eye, or ordinary epidermis, according to the
locality in which it is placed, and seem to constitute decisive evidence
against the view that the organs of the body are represented in the
egg by localized peculiar substances.
Election of Members:

The following members of the faculty were elected to active
membership in the Society: Dr. Otto Stuhlman, Dr. E. A. Abernathy,
Capt. Frederick W. Boye, Mr. H. M. Taylor, Mr. H. G. Baity, Mr.
W. E. Walke, Mr. Walter B, Jones. The following advanced students
and assistants were elected to associate membership: C. P. Savage,
Eleanor Hoffmann, P. R. Dawson, T. P. Dawson, R. A. Lineberry,
S. C. Smith, A. M. Wolfson, H. L. Cavaness, B. Naiman, R. O. Deitz,
S. C. Ogburn, A. B. Owens, F. P. Brooks, J. W. Guard, C. R. Harris,
N. W. Taylor, D. M. Carroll, C. B. Ridge, C. J. Bryan, D. St. P.
DuBose, W. F. Foote, T. E. Hinson, E. J. Mecum, L. V. Milton,
J. D. Morris, P. C. Smith, A. B. Wright, R. M. Casper, M. E. Lake.
T. B. Smiley, W. H. Butt, H. S. Boyce, S. B. Lee, J. B. Miller, B. E.
Lohr, Roy J. Morton, L J. Stephenson, Clayton Edwards, S. C.
Alston, J. B. Noe, F. R. Bacon, J. B. Broach, S. M. Crisp, A. L.
Miner, J. W. Harrell, Jr., J. L. Cobb, M. L. Jacobs, J. M. Alexander,
Wm. F. Alston, P. M. Grey, A. H. Merritt, J. G. Tucker, C. D. Beers,
H. S. Everett, Ernest Atkins.

244th Meeting — November 9, 1920

The Society passed the following Resolution :

Whereas, the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society was organized for the purpose of
encouraging scientific investigations in North Carohna; and

106 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Whereas, European Forestry has depended upon and reaped much benefit from
the Forest Experiment Stations of the various countries; and

Whereas, several such experiment stations have been estabUshed in the western
part of the United States and none in the eastern states; and

Whereas, we reaUze the importance of securing more accurate knowledge con-
cerning methods of management for the perpetuation of the valuable forests of
the Southern Appalachian region; therefore be it

Resolved, that we go on record as strongly favoring the establishment of a For-
est Experiment Station by the United States in the vicinity of Asheville and do
hereby respectfully urge Congress to pass the bill providing for such station.

C. S. Goodwin and C. R. Monroe were elected to associate member-
ship in the society.

J. M. Bell — Further Studies on the Nitrotoluenes.

This paper was the result of a continuation of work begun at the
request of the National Research Council on the freezing points and
thermal properties of the nitrotoluenes. The particular nitro-
toluenes investigated are those formed in largest amounts during the
nitration of toluene to TNT: viz., orthonitrotoluene (ONT) ; para-
nitrotoluene (MNT); 1, 2, 4-nitrotoluene (DNT); and 1, 2, 4, 6-
trinitrotoluene (TNT). There are two melting points for ONT,
corresponding to the two crystal forms of this compound ; the stable
form (m. p.-4.5°) and the metastable form (m.p.-10.5°). The follow-
ing systems were investigated: ONT-DNT and ONT-MNT-DNT
(with E. B. Cordon); ONT-MNT and ONT-MNT-TNT (with F.
H. Spry); ONT-TNT and ONT-DNT-TNT (with Woodford White).
A formal presentation of the results is to be made in early issues of
the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.

A. H. Patterson — Recent Work on Spiral Nebidae.

A review of the recent work done at Mt. Wilson and elsewhere
on the Nebulae, Wolf-Rayet Stars and Stars of Classes B and A; the
theory of the origin of Spiral Nebulae was outlined, and lantern
slides shown of various types of spiral and quiescent nebulae; the
relation between velocity and temperature of the stars and nebulae
was touched upon, and the significance of the Spiral Nebulae some-
times occurring in pairs was pointed out.

245th Meeting — December 14, 1920
J, W. Lasley, Jr. — Some Developments in Modern Geometry.

Einstein's results resolve the problem of understanding the laws
of the universe into the problem of understanding geometry. It was

1921] Proceedings of Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 107

a contribution of Klein to see in group theory a logical classification
of geometry. Classified from the viewpoint of groups of transform-
ations, geometry falls into projective geometry, metric geometry,
etc. Some investigations require a knowledge of a geometric figure
only in a limited region; others require a knowledge of the figure as
a whole. We are thus led to a sub-classification: differential and in-
tegral geometry. Four kinds of geometry thus arise: the projective
differential geometry of Halphen, Wilczynski and Green, the pro-
jective integral (known as projective) geometry of Desargues, the
metric differential (known as differential) geometry of Gauss, and
the metric integral (known as geometry) geometry of Euclid. The
developments in geometry to which this paper calls attention are those
in the field of projective differential geometry,

C. S. Mangum — A Review of the Public Health Work in North Carol-
ina.

Progress in health work is indicated by a reduction in death rates.
For the whole United States the death rate is 12.9 per thousand of
population. In North Carolina it is 12.4. This is lower than the
known death rate in any other of the old states from Maine to Texas.

This record is all the more creditable when one considers the fact
that North Carolina's birth rate is the highest of all the states in the
Union, and is steadily increasing.

The State Board of Health, in conjunction with allied associations,
has for years conducted a well organized and energetic campaign
which has shown most encouraging results in a number of fields.

In 1914 there were 8,390 cases of typhoid fever and 839 deaths.

In the last twelve months there have been 2,750 cases with 275
deaths. A reduction of two-thirds.

Within the same period the death rate from diphtheria has been
cut in half. In 1914: deaths 525. In 1920: deaths 242.

The deaths from tuberculosis have decreased from 3,710 in 1914,
to 3,005 in 1920. A gain of 705.

The work of the Board may be classified under three heads:

(1) Educational. Through the wide distribution of the ''Bulle-
tin" and thousands of special pamphlets, public lectures and pubhcity
campaigns; using the County as a unit.

(2) Prophylactic. Supervision of the care of expectant mothers
and of infants; Intensive campaigns against preventable diseases,
distribution free or at a nominal cost of vaccines and antitoxins,

108 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

supervision of public water supply, sewage and sanitation, and the
making of water analyses and many other laboratory tests.

(3) Directly Remedial. Free clinics for the treatment of venereal
diseases; Medical inspection of the public school children followed
by free dental clinics and the removal of diseased tonsils and adenoids.

The Public Health Work is under the direction of a general staff,
the State Laboratory of Hygiene and eight special bureaus.

1. Laboratory of Hygiene:

Supplies Vaccines, Antitoxins and Pasteur treatments; makes
water analyses and Wasserman and other tests.

2. Bureau of Vital Statistics:

Collects information which insures the efficient direction of the
work.

3. Bureau of Tuberculosis:

The State Sanatorium treats an average of 135 cases each year,
examines and advises over 1000 others, and conducts intensive
County Campaigns.

4. Bureau of Medical Inspection of Schools:

In the past two years 150,000 public school children have been
examined; 25,587 have been given free dental treatment and 2500
have had diseased tonsils or adenoids removed.

5. Bureau of County Health Work;

Forty counties have full time health officers and 22 have full
time public health nurses. Within the past two years 40,000 insani-
tary privies have been eliminated, principally in rural communities
and in small towns.

6. Bureau of Engineering and Inspection :

For supervision of public water supply and sewage disposal.

7. Bureau of Venereal Diseases:

Sixty thousand persons have received treatment in the last 2
years at the free clinics.

Educational campaigns are being conducted in the comities by:
(1) A physician who goes into the coimty to arrange dates and arouse
interest. He is followed by: (2) The "educational truck" carrying
a physician to lecture to the men, a woman to lecture to the women,
a moving picture machine and a negro physician to lecture to the
negroes.

8. Bureau of Epidemiology:

Conducts the fight against infectious diseases. In the last 2
years 165,000 people have been given the free protective treatment
against typhoid fever.

J921] Proceedings of Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 109

9, Bureau of Public Health Nursing and Infant Hygiene:

In 2 years has given aid and instruction to 11,000 expectant or

new mothers, who needed intelligent care for themselves and their

babies, that they were unable to secure.

The economic value of this work is tremendous when computed

in terms of the economic value of a human life, which is about $3500.00,

but the intangible values based upon better health, greater efficiency

and longer life are beyond computation.

JAMES JACOB WOLFE

1875-1920
Plate 8

The North Carolina Academy of Science has lost in Dr. Wolfe
one of its most active, influential and useful members, and desires
to put on record a sincere and affectionate appraisal of his character,
his personality, his work and his service to the Academy, to Trinity
College and to the State.

He was born on September 14, 1875, at Sandy Run, Calhoun
County, South Carolina, the son of John Archie Wolfe and Frederica
A. (Geiger) Wolfe, was educated at Wofford College, and pursued
graduate training at University of Chicago, and at Harvard, receiving
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the latter University in 1904.
He was at once elected Professor of Biology in Trinity College, and
filled this position with marked ability and distinction as teacher,
investigator and administrator until his death, after only a short
illness, on the morning of the College Commencement Day, June 9,
1920.

On June 28, 1904, he was married to Cornelia Wilhelmina Lehr-
mann, of Montclair, N. J., who survives him. There are no children.

Dr. E. W. Gudger, for many years head of the Biological Depart-
ment at the State College for Women, and now of the American
Museum of Natural History, New York, writes as follows:

"I knew Professor Wolfe for some twelve years, and for ten years
of that time intimately. He was an unusual man in every way.
Some years after we became friends, he came down to the U. S.
Fisheries laboratory at Beaufort to take up the study of certain
marine algae, and it was my good fortune to introduce him to the
life of a marine biological laboratory. From that time on our friend-
ship grew and our intimacy was terminated only by his all too early
death.

"In his scientific work, Professor Wolfe was careful, painstaking,
and thorough, testing every observation and phenomenon to the far-
thest limit before committing his observations and conclusions to
writing. In his work on the alternation of generations in one of
the marine algae, his observations and results were at variance with
those of previous workers. Here, instead of rushing into print with
something startling, he patiently reviewed his work year after year
until he was absolutely sure of his results. At the time of his death
Professor Wolfe was engaged, with the assistance of Mr. Bert Cun-

[1101

1921] James Jacob Wolfe 111

ningham, in an extensive and far-reaching investigation for the U. S.
Bureau of Fisheries on our marine diatoms, and had he been spared
to finish this it would have been the. authoritative monograph on
these plants in our waters.

"As a teacher, Professor Wolfe was one of the most successful
instructors in his subject in North Carolina. Under him the depart-
ment of Biology in Trinity College grew steadily in numbers of stu-
dents and in influence, and at the time of his death he had plans on
foot for a very great enlargement and development of his depart-
ment.

"In the North Carohna Academy of Science, Professor Wolfe
was one of the most influential and valuable members. Never ab-
sent from a meeting, he could always be counted on for any needed
work. During my eleven years' incumbency as Secretary I called
on him scores of times for advice and help, and it was always his
pleasure, and, as he put it, his 'privilege,' to serve the Academy.
This ready devotion of his was appreciated by all the members, and
was signalized in 1914 by his unanimous election to the office of
President.

"Professor Wolfe's life was as square and straightforward and
honest as was his scientific work. I who knew him intimately knew
him always four-square to the world. Generous and whole-souled
himself, he always looked for these qualities in others. He was one
of the most delightful hosts I have ever known, and no one ever
visited him and Mrs. Wolfe in their delightful home at Trinity Col-
lege without bringing away recollections of the very finest hospitality.
He was a man of the most genial and lovable personality.

"Of what Professor Wolfe's death has meant to me personally it
is hard for me to speak. For more than ten years I have had in him
an intimate friend on whom I could rely to the limit, and his going
has made the world much poorer for me."

This impression of fine-souled solidity of character was shared
by all who knew him. A co-worker with Dr. Wolfe along certain
lines, who saw him often and was able to judge him fairly, is Dr. W.
C. Coker, head of the Department of Botany in the University of
North Carohna, who bears this testimony:

"I have been asked to give my impression of Dr. Wolfe as a
man, as an investigator and as a member of the North Carolina
Academy of Science.

"It is significant that as I recall him as a man and as a friend
my thoughts have no element of uncertainty or complexity, but rest
quietly as though carried on a tranquil stream. Wolfe was a simple
man, as all good men are, or rather one might say the impression
was that of simplicity, and always the same. It could not be other-
wise with one who so fully combined the few great and essential
qualities of goodness, to which little need be added, and without

112 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

which all additions or embellishments are as naught. A big-hearted
humanity, transparent honesty, quiet and sustained industry — these
are the immortal three; but let us also add the salt that never loses
its savor, the disposition to enjoy life and to get some fun out of
it. It is needless to add that he did not know the meaning of the
word vanity, as he had no trace of it in himself. While I was at
Johns Hopkins one of the strongest and best young professors in that
University died. Dr. Brooks, our great teacher of Biology, who
loved this man deeply, said to me: 'He was as simple as a child,'
as summing up all that was best in his friend. These words return
to me as I think of Wolfe. Such is the simplicity of serenity and
harmony, the absence of a jarring note.

''Men of this type, and they are not so numerous, remind us of
natural phenomena. They are like the pine woods in winter — un-
shaken and sustaining in their perennial verdure. When others
change, their colors do not fade. They are like the hills, from whence
Cometh our help. There was no uncertainty about Wolfe and no
futility. He was radiant with humanity. There was a glow about
his friendship and his sympathy that did not admit of question.
He was not a casual benefactor, but was full of a sustained gener-
osity. Those who were with him daily In his community will testify
to his work as a member of the Board of Directors of Watts Hos-
pital and of his personal service in cases of sickness and distress.
He was willing to give himself, and not merely his means, a most
rare and excellent thing in a man.

"As a student and investigator, Wolfe was intelligent and faith-
ful. His mind was intensely interested in ideas as well as facts,
and he was constantly thinking. I always looked forward to his
visits with interest. With his full share of jovial conversation, we
were never long together before he started a serious discussion of
some interesting biological problem of the day. He liked to talk
about evolution and heredity, their new problems and phases. This
interest was reflected in his choice of a subject for his presidential
address before the North Carolina Academy of Science at its 14th
annual meeting at Wake Forest (see this Journal, 31: 12. 1915).
He was not dogmatic and could change with the times. When a
cherished position was undercut by new discoveries he could step
off at the right moment.

"Among American biologists his position was more than respect
able. He stood high as a producer of sound and timely work. He
was not wordy, never published for bulk, and was not anxious to
appear prolific. His papers were of the kind that required hard
and patient labor, and he kept right on until he got the results. His
training at Harvard under Farlow and Thaxter gave him a clear
conception of what is true scholarship and he never for a moment
lowered his standards. True to the best traditions of his profession,
he did not loaf his summers away under the plausible pretense of a
needed rest, but spent most of them in hard work at the Marine

1921] James Jacob Wolfe 113

Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts (1901-1906),
and at Beaufort, North Carolina, in the laboratory of the U. S. Bu-
reau of Fisheries (1909-1916). There he collected and prepared the
material for his excellent papers on the biology and reproduction
of the seaweeds that brought him his greatest reputation. His work
on the algae Nemalion (Annals of Botany 18: 607. 1904) and Padina
(see this Journal 34: 78. 1918) would alone place him as an invest!
gator of fine abilities. Recently he had been engaged in investiga-
tions on the plankton of Chesapeake Bay for the U. S. Fish Com-
mission, a considerable part of this work having been completed at
the time of his death. In recognition of the importance of this work
the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society invited him to give an address
on the subject at its meeting of January 13, 1920. (For abstract
see this Journal 36: 3, 1920.)

"Wolfe was elected to membership in the North Carolina Acad-
emy of Science at its 6th Annual Meeting in 1907 and was an active
and enthusiastic member during the whole of its subsequent record.
So far as I recall, he never missed a meeting and he nearly always
presented a paper — and a good one. As a member of the Executive
Committee at various times, as Vice-President (1908-1909) and as
President (1914-1915) he gave freely of his time and judgment. In
his death the Society has sustained a heavy and irremediable loss.
We shall miss him as a friend and as a strong support."

"Below is a list of the published papers and addresses of Dr.
Wolfe so far as I have been able to find them:
Cytological Studies in Nemalion. Annals of Botany 18: 607-630, pis. 40-41, with

1 text fig. 1904.
The Cause of Pellagra: a Preliminary Report. Paper presented before the 9th

Annual Meeting of the N. C. Academy of Science. Abstract in Journ. E. M.

Scientific Soc. 24: 53. 1910.
Alternation of Generations in Padina. Paper read before the 12th Annual Meeting

of the N. C. Academy of Science. Abstract in Journ. E. M. Scientific Soc.

29: 8. 1913.
The Locust Tree Carpenter Moth, a Formidable Parasite of the Oak. Paper read

at the 13th Annual Meeting of the N. C. Academy of Science. Abstract in

Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 30: 65. 1914.
An Outline of Modern Work Bearing on the Theory of Descent. Presidential address

before the N. C. Academy of Science. In full in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 31:

12-26. 1915.
Alternation and Parthenogenesis in Padina. Paper read at 15th Annual Meeting

of the N. C. Academy of Science. Abstract in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 32: 51.

1916.
Some Methods and Results of a Plankton Investigation of Chesapeake Bay. Witli

Bert Cunningham. Paper read at the 17th Annual Meeting of the N. C. Acad-
emy of Science. Abstract in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 34: 70. 1918.
Alternation and Parthenogenesis in Padina. In full in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 34:

78-109, pi. 1. 1918. (Contribution from the Laboratory of the Bureau of

Fisheries, Beaufort, N. C. This paper, in somewhat shortened form, was read

Hi Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

before a joint session of the Botanical Society of America and the Botanical
Section of the A. A. A. S. at their 1918 meeting in Pittsburgh.)
New and Little-Known Diatoms from Beaufort, N. C. Paper read before 18th An-
nual Meeting of the N. C. Academy of Science. By title in Journ. E. M. Sci.
Soc. 35: 11. 1919.
The Plankton of Chesapeake Bay. Invitation address before the Elisha Mitchell
Scientific Society, January 13, 1920. Abstract in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 36;
3. 1920."

His younger colleague in the Biological department of Trinity-
College, Professor Bert Cunningham, is able because of an intimate
acquaintance of several years, to render an opinion based upon the
sure ground of daily intercourse, and a consequent thorough knowl-
edge of Dr. Wolfe's character as a man, a scholar and a gentleman.

"He was a perfectly frank, straightforward man, always avoiding,
if possible, the hurting of another; kind, patient, considering the
other man more than himself, and never in any way seeking retalia-
tion for wrongs done him; interested in civic welfare, and especially
devoted to the relief of suffering.

"As a teacher, he was exceptionally well-grounded by knowledge
much broader than his field; accurate and exacting in the classroom
and laboratory; a leader and stimulator of thought on the part of
his students; a personal friend and adviser to them.

"As an investigator he was exceedingly accurate and painstaking,
endeavoring to get the 'last word' of a subject before laying it down;
keen in seeing methods for the attack of problems and in recognizing
the relations of a problem to the whole problem of life; and excep-
tionally careful in his writing that there might be no ambiguity.

" I am incompetent to write a eulogy for this splendid man. Words
fail w^hen I try to express my appreciation. To have lived with him
and worked with him has been a great opportunity that I shall ever
appreciate. To be without his judgment, guidance and friendly
counsel is an irreparable loss."

His fellow-members of the Academy of Science, recognizing the
justice and truth of the testimony quoted, desire to express their
concurrence with it, and to render respectful homage to the fine
qualities of mind and heart possessed by Dr. W^olfe, together with a
keen and sorrowful regret that his useful life should have been so
untimely cut off.

Integer vitae scelerisquc purus
Non eget Mauris jaculis neque arcu
Nee venenatis gravida sagittis,
Fusee, pharetra.

W. H. Pegram,
R. U. Wilson,
A. H. Patterson,
Committee.

THE CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF ZIRCONIUM
By F. p. Venable

Any discussion of the chemical relations and behavior of an ele-
ment forms necessarily an unfinished chapter in the present state of
knowledge. This is particularly true of zirconium, which has been
so imperfectly studied, where comphcations are many and their
unraveling presents unusual difficulties. It is only by the apphca-
tion of the most modern chemical and physical methods that a solu-
tion can be hoped for; hence it is not strange that many of the earlier
observations were faulty and misleading, and that only partial knowl-
edge has been attained as yet.

Since there is no positive evidence that the valence of zirconium
is ever other than four, there is at least a helpful simplicity in this
regard. In the ionization of its compounds two varieties of ions are
definitely known, namely, the quadrivalent zirconium Zr and the bi-
valent zirconium monoxide ZrO, which has no independent existence.
It has been reported that the sesquioxide ion (also bivalent), Zr2 03, has
been found under certain conditions, but this has been brought into
question by later work. Recently it has been suggested that both
the quadrivalent elementary ion and the bivalent zirconyl ion may
be present in the same compound. While this is not impossible, it
does not appear to be the only explanation of the results obtained.
The complex ions have been found by various investigators to migrate
with the negative stream as well as with the positive. This, of
course, is to be expected in true chemical compounds where one is
dealing with an amphoteric element. Sometimes it is doubtless to
be attributed to the colloidal nature of the product under examina-
tion.

Zirconium forms binary compounds with a number of the ele-
ments. The evidence is against the existence of a hydride ZrH4.
The hydride reported as ZrH2 may contain only absorbed hydrogen.
This hydrogen is lost at a higher temperature. Nitrogen combines
with the heated element, forming various compounds. This nitrogen
is also driven off below 1000°. Compounds with the halogens are
stable up to high temperatures and the oxide is dissociated only at
the temperature reached in an electric furnace.

The oxide Zr02 forms at least two hydroxides. The normal hy-
droxide, or zirconium hydroxide Zr(0H)4, is easily hydrolyzed in the

[1151

116 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

presence of water. When water is excluded normal zirconium salts
can be formed from it. When hydrolyzed, zirconyl hydroxide ZrO
(0H)2 is formed. This hydroxide is amphoteric, behaving as a base
towards strong acids and as an acid towards strong bases. It shows
little tendency to form definite compounds with weak acids or bases.
As a base it gives zirconyl salts, and these may be hydrolyzed into
basic zirconyl salts. As an acid, called zirconic acid H2Zr03, it forms
zirconates, chiefly with the alkalies and alkaline earths. These are
very slightly soluble in water and are decomposed by mineral acids.

Zirconium shows many and close analogies to the other elements
in the fourth group, both as to the compounds formed and their
chemical behavior. This analogy is especially close in the cases of
titanium and tin when they are quadrivalent. In limitation of val-
ence it is more like carbon and silicon. Its occurrence as the dioxide
is also characteristic of the group. The ease of hydrolysis and the
amphoteric character of the hydroxide are also group characteristics.

The outstanding characteristics of the compounds in which tetra-
valent zirconium is directly united with an acid radical is their marked
tendency to react with water. Ignorance of this or failure to consider
it has led to many mistakes on the part of earlier investigators.
Older statements represent such salts as the tetrachloride, the sul-
phate, the fluoride, and others as crystallizing unchanged from aqueous
solutions, but later investigators have shown that none of these
salts can exist in water solutions and most of them are unstable in
the presence of the slightest moisture.

Hydrolysis takes place not merely with readiness, the water pro-
duced in a gas burner hydrolyzing normal zirconium sulphate which
is being heated by it, but also to a far-reaching extent. The velocity
of the reaction and the extent depend upon the dilution, the tempera-
ture, and the time. The content of such a solution then is determined
by its previous history. The hydrolysis is progressive and the acid
radical may be gradually liberated until very little is left in combina-
tion, the small remaining portion being held probably by adsorption.
In the case of the chloride, for instance, the amount of chlorine left
has been found to be about 3 p.c. of the amount originally present,
and this is no longer precipitated by silver nitrate unless first treated
with nitric acid. When dialyzed this chlorine is found with the
colloidal hydroxide in the hydrogel. This hydrogel consists in the
main of zirconyl hydroxide. Experiments with the sulphate yield
similar results. The normal hydroxide is unstable in the presence of

1921] The Chemical Behavior of Zirconium 117

water, losing one molecule of water and changing to zirconyl hydroxide.
It is more easily soluble in acids than zirconyl hydroxide. At various
stages in the hydrolysis the addition of ammonium hydroxide will
give precipitates of different composition These have been con-
sidered by some as new hydroxides, but there is little proof that they
are not mere mixtures. It has been suggested that there are two
hydroxides with the formula ZrO(OH)2, ordinary zirconyl hydroxide,
which is amphoteric, and a metazirconic acid. No salts of the latter
are definitely known and its existence has been disputed.

While in all cases the hydrolysis is progressive, it is almost certain
that all the molecules do not react with water at the same time, and
hence at any one time various stages of hydrolysis may be present
in a solution. It is common, however, for one of the stages to pre-
ponderate. It may therefore be possible to observe definite steps in
the progression when there are formed basic zirconyl compounds
which either separate by precipitation because of their insolubility
or by crystallizing with molecules of water, forming difficultly-sol-
uble salts, or otherwise afford indications of their presence through
physical tests such as electrical conductivity, thermo-chemical data,
cryoscopic determinations, etc. One of the most frequently occuring
of these basic compounds is Zr 2030)2, known as Endemann's chloride.
Its analogues are Zr203.S04, Zr203(N03)2, Zr203(SCN)2, and others.
These have always been obtained in the hydrated condition, and it
has been observed that the last portion of the water is removed with
considerably greater difficulty. This fact, combined with that of
leaving the colloidal hydroxide on dialysis, leads to the suggestion
that the formulas be written ZrO(OH)2.ZrOCl2, ZrO(OH)2.ZrOS04,
etc. These indicate the degree and order of the hydrolysis. Thus
the steps are ZrCl4+H20= ZrOCl2+2HCl; 2ZrOCl2+H20= ZrO
(OH)2.ZrOCl2+2HCl. In the first stage all of the tetrachloride is
hydrolyzed. In the second, one-half of the zirconyl chloride is hy-
drolyzed and the colloidal hydroxide formed either combines chemi-
cally with the zirconyl chloride or forms an adsorption compound
with it. It is difficult in this and a number of similar cases to con-
ceive of these substances where the composition is definite and the
conditions of formation are accurately known as other than definite
chemical compounds. Thus at a temperature of 39.5° between the
dilutions 1: 4 and 1: 120 the sulphate Zr(S04)2 is hydrolyzed with
the production of a crystalline substance having the composition
4Zr02.3S04.14H20, which may also be written ZrO(OH)2.3ZrO.

118 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

S04.13H«0. This indicates a hydrolysis in the second stage of one
out of four molecules of ZrO.S04. The velocity of this reaction
diminishes with decreasing temperature, and it has been found that
only 67 p.c. of the sulphate originally used go to the formation of
this product. The condition of the remainder in this case is unknown.
The crystalline basic sulphate just mentioned and other compounds
of like character show partly colloidal properties and have therefore
been classed by Hauser as half-colloids.

Again, the existence of an equilibrium reached in the hydrolysis
is indicated sometimes in measuring conductivity changes. Thus
in the case of the hydrolysis of a one-fourth normal solution of ZrOCU.
8H2O at 18° the change for the first sixty minutes is at an average
rate of 67 x 10-^ ohms per cc. per minute. For the next 168 hours
it averages only 0.014x10-^ ohms per minute, indicating the slow
breaking down of a more stable compound or the retarding effect of
the liberated acid. This retarding effect of free acid is w^ell known.
It can be inhibitory or even cause a reversal of the reaction. Thus
the addition of slilphuric acid to a partially hydrolyzed zirconyl sul-
phate solution when it reaches a certain concentration will bring about
the separation as crystals of the original zirconyl sulphate. Normal
zirconium sulphate crystalUzes unhydrolyzed from sulphuric acid
containing only a few per cent of water. This inhibitory and reversal
effect is produced also by the presence of the salts of strong bases
like the alkalies. Anhydrous zirconium fluoride, for instance, is very
slowly and difficultly soluble in water. In solution it is hydrolyzed,
ZrF4=ZrOF2.H2F>.3H20. This recrystalfizes from water unchanged.
If considerably diluted, an amorphous basic zirconyl fluoride is pre-
cipitated. This formation of an acid salt with the liberated acid has
been noticed in a number of cases. If the water present is in small
amount, the hydrolysis is checked. If a salt of a strong base is added
(usually in excess) there is formed a double salt or complex which
does not hydrolyze. With potassium fluoride three complexes are
formed. First, we have KF.ZrF4.H2O, which can be formed only in
the presence of a large excess of zirconium fluoride and is decomposed
on re-solution in water. It should probably be written KF.ZrOF2.
H2F2, lacking enough potassium fluoride to inhibit hydrolysis when
much water is added. The second salt, 2KF.ZrF4, crystallizes with-
out water of crystallization. It is very stable, giving off hydrofluoric
acid only at a red heat, and can be repeatedly recrystallized from
water. It is regarded as a salt of fluozirconic acid and, under that

1931] The Chemical Behavior of Zirconium 119

supposition, its formula may be written KaZrFs. It is formed when
the potassium fluoride and zirconium fluoride are mixed in equivalent
proportions.

Zirconium sulphate also affords a very instructive example of
hydrolysis. So complicated are the different directions which this
hydrolysis takes and so varied are the products formed that it has
been the subject of skilled investigation for the past two decades,
and many mistakes have been made from the earliest time up to the
present. Some of the problems involved still lack a satisfactory
solution. The normal sulphate was long supposed to exist in two
crystalline forms — the anhydrous, Zr(S04)2, and the tetrahydrated,
Zr(S04)2.4H20. The first crystalhzed from concentrated sulphuric
acid and its formula is correctly given. The second crystalhzed from
aqueous solutions, presumably without change. It has been shown
since that the latter is really an hydrolysis product. The hydrolysis
proceeds as follows: Zr(S04)2.4H20 = Zr(S04)2+H20+3H20 = ZrOS04.
H2SO4.3H2O. Of course, such hydrolysis would not be revealed by
analysis. A solution of this acid compound reacts with certain
reagents in a manner different from a freshly-prepared solution of
Zr(S04)2 and which is only slightly hydrolyzed. If sulphuric acid is
added to this fresh solution of zirconium sulphate the same reactions
are shown. The mere presence of free acid might serve as an explana-
tion without the assumption of an acid compound but would leave
the inhibitory effect upon hydrolysis unexplained. Observations
based on physical methods also corroborate the view that an acid
compound is present. There seems to be no inherent obstacle to

writing this formula as a hydrogen zircon yl sulphate, ZrOs— SO4.

Similar acid complexes are given with the nitrate, perchlorate, and
compounds with certain organic acids.

One of the other possible series of hydrolytic changes has also
been traced analytically. Zr(S04)2+H20=ZrO(S04)2H2. 2ZrO(S04)2
H2 + H20=Zr 203(804) 2H2+H2SO4. Electrolytic dissociation yields
respectively the anions ZrO(S04)2 and Zr203(S04)2. These compounds
occur in solution along with strongly hydrolyzed basic zirconyl
products, as is evidenced by the composition of the precipitates ob-
tained from these solutions on the addition of alcohol. Such preci-
pitates are usually poorly defined and seemingly amorphous. It

120 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

has been found possible, however, to obtain by other means a well-
defined, crystalline product whose composition is represented by the
formula SZrOj.SSOa.HHiO, and a potassium compound, 4Zr02.
5SO3.K2O. The following additional scheme of hydrolysis has been
proposed :

4Zr(S04)j + 8H,0 = Zr^lSOOeH* + 2H2SO4
Zr4(S04).. (0H),.H4 + 2HsO = Zr4(S04)6. (0H)g.H2 + 2H,S04
Zr4(S04)». (0H)..H2 + 2H»0 = Zr4(S04),(OH),o + 2H,S04

Zr4(S04)2(OH)„

2Zr4(S04),(OH)io + 2HiO = ySO* + HiS04

Zr4(S04)j(OH)„
The compounds Zr4(SO4),(OH)8.H4.10H2O and 4H2O have been ob-
tained as crystals, and also the compounds Zr4(S04)3(OH)io and
(Zr4(S04)2(OH)„)2S04.8HA but the compound Zr4(S04)5(OH)s.H,
only in the form of an alkali salt. In preparing these the colloid is
removed by dialysis and these half-colloids crystallized from the
concentrated solutions.

The complex and varying products obtained by mixing a solution
of zirconyl sulphate with one of potassium sulphate have long been a
puzzle. In part, at least, mixtures of hydrolyzed substances are
formed. Recently it has been shown that if the mixed solutions are
concentrated over sulphuric acid definite compounds crystallize.
These show very well the influence of such a salt as potassium sul-
phate upon a progressing hydrolysis. When potassium sulphate is
used micro-crystalline needles with the composition K4Zr4(OH)8
(804)5.81120 are obtained. In a solution strongly acid with sulphuric
acid the first crystals formed are K4Zr(S04)4; in weakly acid solutions
the composition is that of potassium-zirconium hydroxysulphate of
varying composition. These products hydrolyze on being treated
with water. If boiled with water, they become opalescent with
colloidal zirconium hydroxide. Following the crystaUizations in
detail, the above-mentioned potassium-zirconium hydroxysulphate
K4Zr4(OH) 9(804) 6.8H2O forms a crystalline crust of needles. A
second crop of prismatic crystals is formed and this has the composi-
tion K4Zr (804)4.51120. The first crystals in hydrolyzing increase
the free acid and bring about an equilibrium. The formation of the
second then begins and decreases the amount of free acid. The reac-
tion is thereupon reversed and the hydroxysulphate crystals form
once more.

1921] The Chemical Behavior of Zirconium 121

In the preparation of certain compounds by precipitation methods
it has been found that the precipitate forms sometimes only after a
considerable lapse of time or upon heating the solution. This is
especially the case where weak acids, such as the organic acids, are
concerned. The compounds thus formed are found to be more or
less highly basic zirconyl salts or mixtures of such. It seems reason-
able to infer that the acid radical of the precipitant used formed only
soluble compounds with the less hydrolyzed salts and insoluble ones
with the more basic. It is possible also that in some cases these are
not true chemical compounds but adsorption compounds in which
the acid radical has been absorbed by the colloidal hydroxide. Some
of these products are distinctly gelatinous and can be washed and
filtered with difficulty. On the other hand, some are granular and
some distinctly crystalline. The hypothesis of colloidal compounds
is especially probable wherever the acid radical can be practically
removed or greatly reduced in amount by repeated washings of the
precipitate, as is true with iodic acid and some organic acids. When,
however, analysis reveals the same basic compound as being formed
under varied conditions of dilution, etc., as is the case with the basic
chromate, it may fairly be assumed that a definite chemical compound
has been formed.

There has been little system in the assignment of formulas to the
basic zirconyl compounds. Some have written them simply in the
ratio of the zirconia to the acid anhydride as 2Zr02.S03. Others
report this basic zirconyl sulphate as Zr02.ZrOS04. Perhaps the
most common formula is Zr203.S04. Such formulas fail to make
clear the known facts. These substances are often gelatinous and,
when hydrolysis is far advanced, the solutions become opalescent.
On dialyzing the solutions leave zirconyl hydroxide as a hydrogel.
Even the crystalline basic salts dialyze with difficulty and show partly
colloidal properties. They have been called half-colloids. Elec-
trolytic dissociation shows often a migration of the zirconyl radical
as an anion or a partition of the zirconium between the anions and
cations. It is well known that the migration of a colloid is largely
influenced by the medium. Furthermore, there is practically always
water of hydration or crystallization present. Considering these
facts, it is suggested that the most suitable formula for these basic
salts would have to include the zirconyl hydroxide. Thus ZrOj.
ZrOSOi becomes ZrO(OH)2.ZrOS04 and Zr203Cl2 becomes ZrO(OH)2.
ZrOCh. This reveals at a glance the stepwise formation of the

122 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Februanj

colloid and the liberation of the acid, e. g., ZrCl«+H20=ZrOCl2+
2HC1; 2ZrOCl2+2H20=ZrO(OH)..ZrOCl2+2HCl. Where several
molecules of ZrOCU are hydrolyzed at one step more complex prod-
ucts will result. This method of writing the formulas has therefore
been adopted throughout this text wherever accurate knowledge of
the composition of the substance was available.

The tetrahalides of zirconium, especially the tetrachloride, form
a number of substitution compounds with organic substances. In
these all or half of the chlorine may be substituted. Thus acetic
acid and its homologues of the aliphatic series give compounds Zr
(C2H302)4, or in general, Zrll4, whereas benzoic acid and its homol-
ogues give ZrCLCCeH 6.002)2 or ZrCURs. With the esters, ketones,
and aldehydes addition compounds are formed. Thus for the ben-
zoic ethyl ester compound the formula is ZrCl4(C6H6.C02.C 2115)2.
Similar direct addition compounds are formed betw^een ZrCh and the
amines, the pyridin bases, etc. The tetrachloride has been suggested
as a catalyzing agent in organic synthesis by Fridel and Crafts.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

A PURE CULTURE METHOD FOR DIATOMS*
By Bert Cunningham

Plate 9

At the suggestion of Dr. G. M. Smith of the Botany Department
of the University of Wisconsin the writer undertook the pure culture
of Algae. Among others, the Diatoms proved most abundant, and
therefore they were selected as the subject of further work.

Beyerinck (1890) seems to have been the first to apply the idea
of Koch (1882), i. e., the use of a solid media to the culture of Algae.
He succeeded in securing a culture of a protoccoid in a mixture of
gelatine and sterile pond water. Miquel (1892) was the first to
secure a Diatom in pure culture. He made an artificial nutrient
with sterile sea water and inoculated it with a couple of drops of
plankton material and then started cultures by fractional subdivision.
In 1900 Allen and Nelson used the same method but with a variation
of nutrient. West (1916) thought the method of Allen and Nelson
to be good but suggested that the materials should be poured into
Petrie dishes and, after a few days, the colonies should be pipetted
out. Richter (1903-11) secured Nitzschia palea and Navicula minus-
cula by the use of synthetic agar plates. His technique will be dis-
cussed later. Pringsheim (1912-13) used the agar method for grow-
ing and separating of Oscillaria and Nostoc. He mentioned the
occurrence of Diatoms but apparently did not follow them up.

Returning now to the technique of Richter. This is given in his
Zur Physiologie der Diatomeen, published in 1909. In 1906 he started
a culture of Diatoms with Fucus serratus and placed them in an
atmosphere of hydrogen-sulfid. This reagent killed the bacteria but
seemed to have no serious effect upon the Diatoms. This had been
previously shown by Molisch. The Diatoms secured in this man-
ner were colorless and identified as Nitzschia putrida Benecke. Later,
in 1906, he secured pure cultures by dipping a tube in raw cultures,
holding it for a minute and then dipping it into sterile sea water.
The cultures secured in this way were placed on agar plates. At
this time he used also another method. A small piece of agar was
suspended in sterile sea water which had been inoculated with a few
drops of plankton material. In the course of a few days the diatoms
had reached the agar and attached themselves to it. Practically

♦Presented at the Botany Seminar., Univ. Wis., Feb. 1920.
[123]

124 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

pure cultures were thus secured. These colonies also were trans-
planted to Petric dishes.

Such methods might serve well where the great majority of the
Diatoms are of one species and where there is no great contamination
of other forms, but would hardly be successful when used with the
ordinary fresh water plankton. The method which we propose here
is based upon these previous methods but has a number of variations.
In the first place we used artificial media. It was made after the
formula suggested by Moore (as given by Kiister) for the culture of
Algae, as follows:

Ammonium Nitrate 5 gr.

Dipotassium Phosphate 2 gr.

Calcium Chlorid 1 gr.

Magnesium Sulfate 2 gr.

Ferric Sulfate trace

Distilled water 1000 cc.

(Special low conductivity)

This differs from the formulae usually given for Diatoms in that
it contains no added Sihcon compound. Chemical analysis of our
agar, however, showed Silicon to be present and an examination of
the agar filtered through cotton showed the presence of some marine
Diatom shells. A 2% solution was now made up with this nutrient
and washed agar. The material was sterilized in test tubes and
retained in them until needed. It was then melted and poured into
Petrie dishes. When it had cooled somewhat, but not hardened, a
drop of pond water was placed on it and washed around. The plate
was then hardened and was turned up-side-down upon the cover and
placed under a bell jar in the green house. After from three to four
weeks, there were colonies of various organisms, large enough to be
spaded out. This was accomplished by the use of a platinum needle.
The colony thus dissected out was examined under the microscope
and if not too badly contaminated, it was stirred up in sterile water
and replated on new agar plates. These plates were likewise placed
under culture conditions and in a few weeks had well formed colonies.
In case all the colonies were not of the same species, colonies were
dissected out and replated. Thus far this second plating in all our
cases, has given us pure cultures. In this manner we have secured
four species of Diatoms.*

♦ In tliis manner we secured also a Blue Green, a unicellular Green and Scenedesmus,
the latter of which has bee" thoroughly worked out by the pure culture method by (J. M.
Smith (1916). The four species of diatoms thus secured have been identified by Dr. J. J.
Wolfe as

Navicula atomus Naog.

Navicula minuscuia Gnm.

Nitzschia amphioxijs (Ehr.) Grun.

Nitzschia palea Wm. Smith.

1921] A Pure Culture Method for Diatoms 125

Diatoms, as well as bacteria, have, in some cases, well defined
contour of colony. Each of the species we have cultured shows a
decided difference. The first type is that of a spreading form. It
soon comes to cover the entire plate with a film of individuals. A
plate of this form is shown in fig. 1. A colony of this type is easy to
secure since one has but to dip down between the colonies in an old
plate and make cultures from this "dip." Another form of colony
is shown in fig. 2. Here we find the colony margin to be restricted
and the form more or less radiate, with the organisms rather evenly
distributed over the area. A third form of colony is somewhat
similar to the latter, but differs in that the central area is much more
thickly settled than the margin. This thickened area occurs before
the gradual spread as is easily seen from fig. 3. Perhaps the more
characteristic form -is that assumed by the last type which, we call
the sheaf type. Fig. 4 is of this type.

We are satisfied that we have not in any degree studied all the
forms that may be cultured in this manner, since a number of forms"
were found in the first plates which we did not have time to follow
up, and further, our original pond water did not contain a great
number of forms.

Diatoms cultured in this manner are easily cleaned and prepared
for examination. The various colonies are spaded out, placed in a
test tube and the agar dissolved in boiling water. The solution is
centrifuged with a small centrifuge and the precipitate is washed
several times with hot water, the centrifuge being used each time
for concentration. After all the agar has been removed the Diatoms
may be either burned upon the cover glass or cleaned with sulfuric
acid and bichromate. After thorough washing they are kept in 50%
alcohol.

The pure culture methods open up several fields of work. First,
the physiology of a species may be studied as was done by Richter.
Second, the classification of the groups may be studied. We think
this last point one of great interest. It is fairly well known that
species have been made upon the description of a single valve. By
this method, if the species will grow on agar, both shells would be
available for study and any differences could be noted. Rare forms
may be secured. Again, there is probably great variation among
the Diatoms, as elsewhere, and probably the majority of these variants
would show up in these cultures, thus species could be minimized.
If there should be any doubt as to the common ancestry of all the

126 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ February

species on a plate, the Barber pipette could be used to isolate a single
specimen as the progenitor.

While we do not beheve that this method will be available for all
species of Diatoms, yet we feel sure that if it is applied to the forms
which will grow upon agar, a number of interesting results will follow.
Durham, N. C.

Explanation of Plate 9.

Fig. 1. Photograph of an agar plate of Niizschia amphioxys. Reduced one-half.

Fig. 2. Photograph of a portion of an agar plate of Navicula atomus. X20.

Fig. 3. Photograph of a portion of a colony on an agar plate of Navicula minus-

cula. X50.
Fig. 4. Photograph of a portion of an agar plate of Nitzschia palea X20.

LITERATURE CITED

Beyerinck. 1890. Kultureversuche mit Zoochlorellen, uns. Bot. Zeit., Vol. 48,

pp. 725-785.
MiQUEL. 1892, 1893, 1898. Recherches experimentales sur la physiologic, la

morphologie, et la pathologic des Diatomees. Annales de Micrographie. Dates

as above.
Miquel 1903, 1904. Le Microg. Preparateur.
Allen and Nelson. 1900. On the artificial culture of marine plankton. Journal

Marine Biol., Vol. 8, No. 5.
KiJSTER. 1907. Kulture der Microorganism.
RiCHTER. 1909. Physiologic der Diatomccn. II Mittcilung.
Pringsheim. 1912. Kultureversuche mit Chlorophyllfiihrendcn Mikro-organ-
ismen. Zeit. z. Biol, der Pflanzen. Vol. XI, 305-332.
1913. Pt. II of above. Vol. XII, 1-108.
West. 1916. Algae, Vol. I.

PLATE 9

:i'as

.^

1 \r -.'li'^'

THE OCCURRENCE OF UNLIKE ENDS OF THE CELLS OF
A SINGLE FILAMENT OF SPIROGYRA

By Bert Cunningham

Plate 10

Wolle in his Fresh Water Algae of the United States first divides
the genus Spirogyra into two groups, based upon the condition of
the ends of the cells. In case they are rephcate as represented in
figure 5 they are placed in one group, while if they are plane as in-
dicated in figure 6 they are placed in the other. DeToni^ makes the
same distinction. West^ also uses this character as a means of classifi-
cation, but adds concerning the former "it (i. e., the replicate ends)
is a character which is constant for the species for which it is found,
although the ingrowths are not necessarily present at the extremity
of every cell in the filament."

Since there are no specific cases cited by West, and since the
occurrence is not described by Wolle or DeToni, and since the writer
has found such a phenomenon occurring, it was thought to be worth
noting.

The material was collected in the spring of 1917 in an intermittent
pool along with considerable Vaucheria. The species may be de-
scribed as follows:

Cell membrane replicate at the ends in at least half of the cases
examined; chlorophyll band single, usually about four turns; con-
jugation scalariform; vegetative cell length about 200 mu, width
about 25 mu; zygote cell length about 175 mu, width about 40 mu;
zygote somewhat spindle-shaped; length 70 mu, width about 35 mu.
This follows so closely the description for S. spreeiana Rahb., that
the writer places it in this species.

The accompanying figures illustrate more clearly than words
the phenomenon. Figure 1 is a diagrammatic drawing (in which no
effort has been made to represent the shape of the cell or zygote)
of a pair of conjugating filaments. Each cell is indicated as it
occurred in the filament. Those marked with double arrows are
replicate while the others are plane. Those in which we were unable to
determine the nature of the end we have indicated by f. Cells preparing
to conjugate are indicated by a P. Figure 2 is a diagrammatic drawing

' Sylloge Algarum.

2 British Fresh Water Algae. (1904).

[127

128 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

of another pair of conjugating filaments, in which the points are in-
dicated as in figure 1. Figure 3 is a microphotograph of the pair
of filaments diagrammed in figure 1. This is a water mount. Figure
4 is a microphotograph showing the differences between the ends of
the cells.

The phenomenon occurs freely in the •collected material and
seems to be natural. The writer has made no attempt at explanation
of the cause. However, efforts were made to germinate the spores
formed but they were unsuccessful. The failure to germinate was
most probably due to laboratory conditions.
Durham, N. C.

PLATE 10

.+!

H ^fl

O'r

lo

I, il 1

ri', ;

'U

I

V'O'

'0

— M

2

fy

v^^- V

a

I

SOME MARINE MOLLUSCAN SHELLS OF BEAUFORT AND

VICINITY

By Arthur P. Jacot

Plates 11-13.

While at Beaufort, N. C, during the summers of 1915 and 1916,
the writer took the opportunity to collect what marine molluscan
shells were procurable by beach picking. A study of the material
thus gathered and of the fragmentary and scattered condition of the
literature on the mollusca of this region have led me to present this
summary for what possible short cuts it might give future workers on
this subject.

Four papers on the shells of this region have come to my notice.
In 1860 W. Stimpson published a paper, Mollusca of Beaufort, N. C,
in the Am. Jour. Sci., ser. II, vol. XXIX, p. 442. When reading
his article it should be born in mind that he confounds Cape Lookout
with Cape Hatteras. Eleven years later E. Coues included in his
Notes on the Natural History of Fort Macon and Vicinity in the Proc.
Phil. Acad. Sci., vol. XXIII, p. 120 (131), 1871, a list of the shells
of this region. Again eleven years later H. L. Osburn published
in the Studies from Biol. Lab. John Hopkins Uni., vol. IV, p. 64,
1887, some interesting Notes on Mollusca Observed at Beaufort, N. C.
Then in 1912, H. D. Aller's Notes on Distribution of the More Common
Bivalves of Beaufort, N. C. appeared in this Journal, vol. XXVIII,
p. 76. Kurtz, Catalogue of the Shells of N. & S. Carolina, 1860, is
a list without locahties. Thus this locality is no new field and prom-
ises to be one of importance.

Beaufort is the mid-most of North Carolina's harbors or outlets
to the sea. Situated 10 miles northwest of Cape Lookout and 95 miles
northeast of Cape Fear, it is the only outlet for the waters of the ex-
tensive sounds lying back of and between these two Capes. Thus
two distinct faunal areas are brought in direct contact and an outside
or deep-water silt fauna added.

The Molluscan fauna of this region is typical of the east coast
of the United States and yet is so situated as to receive West Indian
as well as northern species. Two distinct faunas are represented,
that of the outer beach or sea and that of the sounds or quiet water.
The sea fauna is one characteristic of the whole coast of the state,
i. e., a hard sand bottom with mud opposite the inlets. The only

[129]

130 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

exception to this is the rock breakwaters at the inlet and at Cape
Lookout. The sound fauna may be much divided and classified as
to depth, salinity, character of bottom, plant association and current.
This would form an interesting study once the shell fauna is better
known. See also Coues.

The following list is a composite of the above mentioned lists
and my collecting. The initials (S C O A J) following the name of
the species refer to the names of those reporting the presence of that
species. The reference below the name of the species is to a good
illustration or description. Some of the material collected may be
fossil, as indicated. Some of these fossil looking shells are greenish
to bluish-black and of a dead to chalky appearance. This may be
due to having lived in mud of that color. Shells are similarly dis-
colored from Massachusetts southward, especially such species as
Anomia simplex, Pecten gihbus, Ostrea virginica, etc. The smaller
Gastropods recorded as fossil (not discolored) were thrown on the
beaches by a channel dredge which dumped excavated material on
the sand bars and grassy flats.

AMPHINEURA
Chaetopleura apiculata Say. S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. .51, fig. 10.
Uncommon, inside, about break-waters.

PELECYPODA

Solemya velum Say. S C O A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 37, fig. 3.

Locally abundant, sand flats. Town Marsh behind draw. (See Aller.)
Nucula proxima proxima Say. S C A J

Md. Geo. Sur., Plio.-Pleistocene, pi. 65, figs. 1-4.

Fairly common, in the channels.
Leda acuta (Conrad). S C J

Md. Geo. Sur., Plio.-Pleistocene, pi. 65, figs. 5-8.

Fairly common, sand flats. Bird Island.
Yoldia limatula (Say). S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 49, fig. 5 and pi. 56, fig. 1.

Uncommon, sand, dredged (Coues); only fragments found.
Glycymeris americana (Def ranee). S? J

Outline regular, ribs radially striate.

Occasional outside, much worn.
Glycymeris peclinata (Gmelin). S C J

Figure 45.

Uncommon to rare, outside, my specimens all fossil-looking.
Area occidentalis Philippi. S C J

Figures 48 and 17646.

1921] Marine Molluscan Shells of Beaufort 131

Less common than the next (Coues), vice versa J, outer beach.

This is the American variety of Linne's A. noae.

Three or four smaller ribs between the large ones.
Area umbonata Lamarck. C J

Figure 56.

Occasional, outer beach.

This is the American variety of the European A. imbricata.

Large and small ribs alternating, somewhat reticulate.
Area (Barbatia) reticulata Gmelin. J

Figure 13.

Two fragments of posterior portion of valve; inside.
Area (Noetia) ponderosa Say. S C A J

Md. Geo. Sur., Pho. -Pleistocene, pi. 64, figs. 1-6, and figures 51 and 1019.

Common, inside and out (see Aller).

Specimens very much elongated posteriorly are rarely met. They approach
the ancestral form A. limaula Conrad. I have figured one of these speci-
mens, figure 54. (See also Coues.)
Area (Scapharca) secticostata Reeve. S C J

Figures 55 and 119.

Occasional, outer beach.

My specimens are worn but do not look fossil.
Area {Scapharca) ineongrua Say. S C J

Figures 52, 53 and 1021.

The most abundant of the genus, outside.
Area (Scapharca) transversa Say. C O A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 56, fig. 2; and figs. 50 and 076a.

Fairly common inside.

Could some of Coues' A. lienosa have been this species? The name has often
been applied to A. secticostata.
Area (Scapharca) eanipeehiensis Dillwyn. S C A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 56, fig. 16; and figs. 49 and 181.

Common, inside.

Specimens approaching the elongate South Carolina variety A. atnericana
(with 35 ribs), are seldom found.
Atrina rigida (Dillwyn). S A J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 432, fig. 1.

Uncommon outside, occasional inside. (See also Aller.)

This is the long-spined form.
Atrina serrata (Sowerby). S C? J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 410, fig. 1.

Fairly common on mud flats, commoner outside.
Pteria radiata Leach.

Reeve, Conch. Icon., Avicula, pi. 6, fig. 10; and pi. 7, fig. 14.

One pair of attached valves, 11 mm. along hinge line.
Pteria eximia Reeve.

Reeve, Conch. Icon., Avicula, pi. 16, fig. 62, and figures 7 and S.

Common on sea fan (Leptogorgia virgtdata) in shallow water. Found on parts
of the sea-fan which are black and bare of zooids, with the long wing di-

132 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

rected upward and outward so that they look like a dead stump or part of
the fan.
Although Stimpson and Coues report Pteria cohjmbus (Dillwyn), I was unable
to find a trace of it. The material which I have called P. eximia agrees
perfectly with Ree\e's A. eximia and the specimens were quite common
on the fans. I have been unable to find any mention of this form. If
Reeve's name should be preoccupied or subsequently taken, I would call
the species P. eximioides. Some of my material has been deposited in the
American Museum under Cat. No. 4998.
Oslrea virginica Gmelin. S C O A J

Md. Geo. Sur., Plio.-Pleistocene, pis. 61-63.

Abundant inside, mostly on mud flats, forming extensive banks locally called
"rocks."
Oslrea equestris Say. S C
See Coues.

"Abundant; adhering to rocks with Modiola and Mytilus."
Pecten {Plagioctenium) gibbus irradians Lamarck. S C J
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 411, fig. I.

Abundant, outside, inside on sand in the deeper water.

Normal number of ribs is 18-20, most common number is 19; rarely brilliant
as P. gibbus; prefers open, clear water, and usually a greater depth than
P. gibbus.
Pecten (Plagioctenium) gibbus gibbus Linne. S C O A J

Common, inside on quiet mud flats, west of Fiver's Island.
Normal number of ribs is 19-22, most common number is 20, usually brightly
colored, shows preference to quiet water.
Pecten yiodosus Linne. S C J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 418, fig. 1.

Coues reports a beach worn valve; half a fresh valve was picked up on Shackle-
ford Bank in August, 1916.
Plicalula gibbosa Lamarck. S C J
Figures 85.
Occasional inside.
Lima inflata Lamarck. S C J

Rare, inside, largest have a vertical height of 14 mm., the riblets are obsolete
through the center of the disc. Live specimens found by Dr. Hyman
differ in being relatively stouter, more inflated, broader, and in being cov-
ered by rounded, unequal, radial wrinkles. Vertical height, 13 mm.
Anomia simplex Orbigny. S C O A J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 419, figs. 4 and 6.
Abundant inside.
Mytilus (Hormomya) exustus Linne. A J
Figures 1, 2 and 3.
Common, on breakwaters.
Stimpson and Coues report Mytilus cubitus Say {Modiolus citrinus Bolten)

probably for this species.
They also report Mytilus edulis.
Mytilus recuruus Rafinesque. C J

PLATE 11

6 Jjt^
9 II u

d* '<» ''*'

t»v

IS

1^ 21 28

. 19

oV 26

4

29

30

s

34

%ii

« '' = <f-M 37 36

35

1921] Marine Molluscan Shells of Beaufort 133

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 388, fig. 2.

Occasional inside.
Modiolus (Brachydonies) demissus dernissus (Dillwyn). S C O A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 54, fig. 1.

Abundant, inside on the grassy tidal flats.
Modiolus tulipus Lamarck. S C A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 54, fig. 4.

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 396, fig. 6.

Fragments (rarely entire valves) occasional on outer beach. (See Aller.)

Coues also reports a live specimen of Modiola casianea Say from the channel.
Modiolaria lateralis (Say). S J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 6, figs. 7 and 8.

One young pair of valves from Fiver's Island has been referred to this species.
Lithophaga bisulcata (Orbigny). A

"Railroad pier at Morehead City, burrowing into pieces of coral and soft rock.
Maximum length is 46 mm."

Osborn records Lithodomus lithophagus Linne, stating that: "Numerous speci-
mens are found boring into the surface of wharf-piles beneath the bark."
Rocellaria slimpsoni Tryon. SCO

"Shells of Venus mercenaria riddled with holes" of this species.
Pandora trilineata Say. S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc, vol. 24, pi. 31, fig. 4, cf. pi. 32, fig. 7.

Uncommon, inside, mud flats.

Some of my material approaches P. trilineata gouldiana Dall. Stimpson and
Coues report Lyonsia hyalina (Conrad).
Crassatellites mactracea (Linsley). S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 58, figs. 11 and 13.

Occasional, inside.

Unworn individuals are well striated.
Venericardia {Pleuromeris) tridentata Say. S C J

Figures 9 and 10.

Occasional, inside.
Chama congregata Conrad.

Md. Geo. Sur., Miocene, pi. 41, figs. 1-3.

Occasional, upper valve fairly common, inside.
Chama macerophylla Gmelin. SCO

Reeve, Conch. Icon., vol. 4, pi. 2, fig. 6; and pi. 8, fig. 6b.

Reported abundant by Coues and rare by Osborn, I was unable to find any-
thing that I would refer to this species. The largest of my Chamas s. s.
have a greatest length of 24 mm. and have no foliaceous scales.
Echinochama arcinella (Linne). S C J

Rogers, Shell Book, pi. 357, fig. 3.

Uncommon (two specimens), outer beach.
Lucina chrysostoma Philippi. S C O J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 444, fig. 5.

Common, outer beach.
Phacoides (Callucina) radians (Conrad).

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc, vol. 23, pp. 809 and 824, pi. 42, fig. 8.

134 Journal of the Mitchell Society {February

One worn right valve.
Phacoides {Parvilucina) muUilineatus (Tuomey & Holmes). A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc, vol. 23, p. 825, pi. 39, fig. 2.

Common, inside.
Divaricclla quadrisulcata (Orbigny). S C O A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 58, fig. 6.

Common, both inside and out.

Called Lucina strigillia by Stimpson and Coues.

No specimens of D. dentata were found, ditto Aller.
Diplodonta soror (C. B. Adams). S C J

Figure 172.

Five valves, inside.

"This well-characterized species is notable for its microscopic shagreening
« on the posterior slope and the compression of that part of the valve"

(Dall).
Aligena elevata (Stimpson).

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 68, fig. 6.

Two left valves, inside.
Montacuta (Orobitella) floridana Dall.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc, vol. 21, pi. 87, fig. 10.

Two right valves, inside.
Cardium (Trachycardium) isocardia Linne. S C A J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 454, fig. 2.

Occasional, both inside and out.
Cardium (Trachycardium) muricaium Linne. S C A J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 356, fig. 3.

Occasional, inside and out. (See Aller.)
Cardium (Cerastoderma) robustum Solander. S C O A J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 356, fig. 2.

Very abundant on outer beach.
Cardium (Laevicardium) serratum Linne. S C J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 454, fig. 3.

Occasional, mostly inside.
Cardium {Laevicardium) mortoni Conrad. S C A J

Dall, II. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 58, fig. 8.

Fairly common, inside.
Dosinia (Dosinidin) discus (Reeve). S C O A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc, vol. 26, pi. 12, fig. 1; and pi. 13, fig. 1.

Common, inside and out. (See Aller.)

D. elegans Conrad is undoubtedly present but I am unable to report it.
Macrocallista nimbosa (Solander). S C O A J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 450, fig. 2.

Common on the sandy beaches a few inches deep between tide lines. (See
Coues for general notes.)
Macrocallista (Chionella) maculata (Linne). S J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 450, fig. 3.

One valve, inside.
Callocardia {Agriopoma) morrhuana (Linsley). C J

WBl] Marine Molluscan Shells of Beaufort 135

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 56, fig. 15.

Abundant on outer beach, generally discolored as mentioned by Coues. If
the habitat of this species is the mud opposite the inlet tbe coloration
would be accounted for, as the valves do not look fossil and have the color
of the fine, blue mud just outside the inlet.
Chione cancellata (Linne). S C O A J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 450, fig. 1.

Abundant, inside on mud at low water. (See AJler.)

Osborn uses Dillwyn's name C. cingenda.
Chione (Lirophora) latilirata (Conrad). S J

Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, pi. 42, fig. 3.

One valve on outer beach.
Chione {Timodea) grus (Holmes). S J

Figures 4, 5 and 6.

Fairly common, inside.

Called C. pygmaea by Stimpson.
Venus mercenaria Linne. S C O A J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 322, figs. 4 and 6. .

Abundant, inside in mud near surface between tides.
Venus mercenaria notata Say.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 57, fig. 1.

Recorded by Coues.
Venus campechiensis Gmelin. S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc, vol. 26, p. 377.

Common inside. (See Coues.)
Venus campechiensis quadrata Dall.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc, vol. 26, p. 377.

One specimen, inside.
Gemma gemma purpurea (H. C. Lea). C J

Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, pi. 24, figs. 2, 4 and 4b.

Occasional, at least inside.
Petricola (Petricolaria) pholadiformis Lamarck. S C A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 59, fig. 15.

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 322, fig. 3.

Fairly common, inside. (See AUer.)
Petricola (Petricolaria) dactylus Sowerby. A

Figures 42 and 306.

"Railroad pier at Morehead City."
Petricola {Rupellaria) typica (Jonas). A

Figure 46.

"Railroad pier at Morehead City."
Tellina (Merisca) lintea Conrad.

Figure 41.

Fairly common, inside.
Tellina (Eurytellina) alternata Say. S C O A J

Figure 38.

Fairly common, inside. (See Osborn.)

136 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Tellina (Angulus) tenera Say. S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 56, fig. 13.

Occasional, inside.
Tellina {Angulus) versicolor DeKay. S J

Shape as T. tenera but rayed with pink.

Less common than preceding, inside.
Tellina {Angulus) sayi Deshayes. S C J

Thick; with a raised rib running from under the beaks inside.

The commonest Tellina, inside.

Called T. polila by Stimpson and Coues.
Tellina {Scissula) iris Say. SCO

Surface obliquely grooved; with radiating pink rays.

Rare, inside, sand.
Tellidora cristata Recluz. S J

Figure 47.

Three valves, inside.
Strigilla flexuosa (Say) . S C J

Dall, U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 482, 1901.

Occasional, inside.
Macoma tenta (Say). S C A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 56, fig. 10.

Two right valves, uncommon, inside.
Macoma {Psammacoma) brevifrons (Say).

Dall, U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 481, pi. 55, figs. 3, 12 and 13.

One right valve, inside.
Semele bellasiriata (Conrad). S? J

Dall, U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 477, 1901.

One worn right valve, inside.

Stimpson's record is S. reticulata.
Semele proficua (Pulteney). S C A J

Figure 126.

Fairly common, inside.

Called S. orbiculata by Stimpson and Coues.
Abra aequalis (Say). S C A J

Figure 127.

Fairly common, inside.
Abra lioica Dall.

Figure 650.

Five valves, inside.
Cumingia tellinoides Conrad. S C J

Md. Geo. Surv., PJio.-Pleisto., pi. 56, figs. 1-5.

Uncommon, inside.
Tagelus gibbus (Spengler) . S C O A J

Md. Geo. Surv., Plio.-Fleisto., pi. 57, figs. 1-4.

Fairly common, inside. (See Aller.)

The young have no median ray, short nymphs and a longer pallia 1 sinus than
T. divisus.

PLATE 12

1921] Marine Molluscan Shells of Beaufort 137

Tagelus (Mesopleura) divisus (Spengler). S C A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 56, fig. 5.

Common, inside. (See Aller.)
Donax fossor Say.

Figures 16 and 17 (figure 16 is from Long Island, N. Y.).

Occasional, inside.

Osborn's record, though under this name, is for the other species.
Donax variabilis Say. S C O A J

Figures 14 and 15 (figure 15 is from Long Island, N. Y.).

Abundant on sandy outer beaches, especially where somewhat protected. (See
Aller and Coues.)
Ensis diredus (Conrad). S C O A J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 53, fig. 4.

Occasional, inside. (See Aller.)
Ensis minor Dall.

Common on sandy shallow flats, inside.

Differs constantly from the previous in being smaller and more slender and
in having a tendency to be wider at posterior than anterior end.
Spisula (Hemimadra) solidissima (Dillwyn). S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 57, fig. 2.

Common on outer beach.
Spisula (Hemimadra) solidissima raveneli Conrad.

Short, high form.

Coues' record under this name undoubtedly refers to the previous.
Spisula (Hemimadra) solidissima similis (Say) . S C A J

Smaller, thinner, finer form.

Fairly common, inside.
Mulinia lateralis (Say). S C A J

Figure 12.

Abundant, inside.
Mulinia lateralis corhuloides (Deshayes).

Figure 11 (144).

Fairly common to occasional.
Labiosa lineata (Say). S C J

Figure 44.

Uncommon, on ends of the banks. (See Coues.)
Labiosa (Raeta) canaliculata (Say). S C O J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 337, fig. 3.

Common, outside.
Mya arenaria Linne. S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 69, fig. 2.

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 323, fig. 7.

Uncommon, inside. I found three broken valves, one 2}/^" long, the others
under one inch, all fresh.
Paramya subovata Conrad. S C J

Md. Geo. Sur., Miocene, pi. 68, figs. 7 and 8.

Uncommon, inside, four valves.

138 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Corbula (Cuneocorbula) contracia Say. S C J

Md. Geo. Surv., Plio.-Pleisto., pi. 53, fig.s. 1-4.

Uncommon, inside.

The largest and commonest Corbula.
Corbula (Cutieocorbula) dietziana C. B. Adams.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bi-ll. 37, pi. 2, figs. 7a-c.

Four young valves, inside.
Corbula {C uneocorbula) swiftiana C. B. Adams.

DaU, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 2, figs. 5a and 5b.

A few valves, inside.
Panopea floridana Heilprin. S C J

Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, pi. 10, fig. 21.

Rare, outside, one right valve.
Barnea (Scobina) cosfata Linne. S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 68, fig. 9.

Fairly common, outside.
Barnea truncata Say. S C J

Dall, IT. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 59, fig. 12.

Uncommon, inside.
Martesia cuneiformis Say. S O J

Johnson, Nautilus, vol. 18, p. 102, fig. 2.

"Found in dead shells of Venus." One valve on Fiver's Island.
Martesia (Diplothyra) smithii (Tryon). A J

Johnson, Nautilus, vol. 18, p. 102, fig. 3.

"Abundant, railroad pier at Morehead City." Several in oyster shells.
Xylotrya gouldi Bartsch. O? A J

Sigerfoos, U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 27, pi. 11.

Abundant, boring in submerged wood.

GASTROPODA

Fissuridea aUernata Say. S C O J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 227, fig. 2.

Occasional, inside. (See Osborn.)
Diadora sp.?

Probably new.

Two specimens.
Turbo casianeus Gmelin. S C J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, pi. 67, fig. 4.

Rare, inside; two specimens.
Calliosloma comtum (Philippi). S C? 0? J

Figure 43.

Occasional on jetties, especially of Shakleford Banks.
Cochliolepis striata Stimpson.

Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, pi. 23, figs. 16 and 17.

Two specimens (8.5 mm. and 10.5 mm. long), inside.
Molleria costulata Moller.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 72, fig. 9.

Three specimens, inside.

1921] Marine Molluscan Shells of Beaufort 139

Teinosloma fioridana Dall.

Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, p. 922, pi. 27, figs. 5, 6 and 9.
Two specimens, inside.
Teinostoma bartschi Vanatta.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 65, pi. 2, figs. 9 and 11, 1913.
One specimen, inside.
Circulus trilix (Bush).

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 41, figs. 7 and 7a.
One specimen, inside.
Eulima conoidea Kurtz and Stimpson.

Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, pi. 5, fig. 11.
Occasional, inside; three specimens.
Pyramidella crenulata Holmes. S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 60, pi. 13, fig. 4.
Common, inside, on eel-grass beds.
Pyramidella Candida Morch.

"P. crenulata is larger, wider, with less sharply cut and less distinctly crenu-
lated suture; it is rarely light colored, the brown columella and anterior
plaits remaining dark even in pale specimens which are usually pinkish
and delicately maculated with brown. P. Candida is pure white, sometimes
with an opaque white spiral line on middle of whorl, and generally one
fewer lirae on throat than preceding species." Dall.
Turbonillas are common on the eel-grass beds. Among the commoner species
recognized are:

Turbonilla (Pyrgiscus) areolata Verrill.

" " interrupta (Totten).

"■ " powhatani Henderson & Bartsch.

" " pseudointerrupta Bush, and varieties.

" " punicea DaU.

" " vineae Bartsch.

For further information see Bartsch, forthcoming monograph.
Odostomia (Odostomia) modesta (Stimpson).

Bartsch, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 34, pi. 13, fig. 50.
One specimen, inside.
Odostomia (Menestho) trifida (Totten).

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 52, fig. 8.
Three or four specimens, inside.
Odostomia (Menestho) impressa (Say). S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 52, fig. 11.
Abundant, inside, on eel-grass beds.
Odostomia (Menestho) beauforti n. sp.

Similar to 0. seminuda but averaging longer and more slender, with five raised
spiral bands, the fourth and fifth being more closely spaced than the other
three, the sutural band as prominent as the others on the last three whorls,
giving the whorls the appearance of having six raised spiral bands on the
last three whorls, translucent, bluish-white. Type No. 15728, Am. Mus.
Nat. Hist.

140 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

One specimen found on Fiver's Island. The writer suspects that this is a mu-
tation of O. seminuda but must suspend judgment until more extensive
collecting has been done in this region.
Odostomia {Chrysallida) seminuda C. B. Adams. S C J

Bartsch, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 34, pi. 13, fig. 48.
Common, inside, eel-grass beds.
Odostomia {Chrysallida) ioyatani Henderson & Bartsch.

Henderson & Bartsch, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc, vol. 47, pi. 13, fig. 2.
Several specimens, inside, eel-grass beds.
Odostomia {Chrysallida) sp.?

Two specimens of what seems to be an undescribed species were found with the
others of this group. They are stouter than the last, and have eight
spiral cords which are alternately larger and smaller, and joined by very
prominent raised threads tending to give the base a reticulated appear-
ance. In the other species of this group these connecting radial threads
are rather inconspicuous.
Odostomia engonia teres Bush?

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 41, fig. 9.
Three specimens have been provisionally referred to this form.
Peristichia tor eta Dall.

DaU, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 42, fig. 10.
Several, inside.
Epitoneum novemcostata (Morch).
Figure 22.

One specimen, inside.
Epitoneum humphreysii (Kiener).
Figures 23 and 24.

Four specimens (two with 8 varices, one with 7, and one with 8 except last
whorl which has 10 varices), inside. (See Coues.)
Epitoneum angulata (Say). S J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 10.
Two specimens, inside.
Epitoneum multistriatum (Say). S J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 5, and figure 28.
One specimen, inside.
Epitoneum novangliae (Couthouy). S

Like above but slightly umbilicate.
Epitoneum lineata (Say). S C J
Figures 26 and 27.

Occasional, inside. One specimen perforate.
Polynices {Neverita) duplicaia (Say). S C O J
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 51, fig. 12.
Fairly common, sand flats, inside. (See Osborn.)
Polynices {Neverita) duplicaia campechiensis (Reeve).
Shell very depressed, umbilicus open.

Two typical individuals out of eleven and three intermediate ones.
Polynices {Euspira) heros (Say).

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 51, fig. 11.
Fragment of a four-inch specimen.

1931] Marine Molluscan Shells of Beaufort 141

Natica (Crypionatica) pusilla Say. C

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 21.

"Not common. Two or three specimens dredged."
Sigaretus perspedivus Say. S C O J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, pi. 68, figs. 4 and 5.

Fairly common, inside and out. (See Coues or Osborn.)
Calyptraea centralis (Conrad).

Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, p. 353.

One specimen, inside.
Crepidula fornicaia Say. S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 23.

Common, inside (see Osborn). Occasionally heavily ribbed by Pecien.
Crepidula glauca Say.

Gould, Invertebrata of Massachusetts, fig. 535, 1870.

Three specimens, inside.
Crepidula glauca convexa Say. S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 25.

Fairly common, inside.
Crepidula aculeata Gmelin.

Figures 39 and 40.

One specimen, inside, bluish and broken, possibly fossil.
Crepidula plana Say. S C O J

Gould, Invertebrata of Massachusetts, fig. 533, 1870.

Fairly common. (See Osborn.)
Litiopa bombix Kiener.

Adams, Genera of Recent Shells, pi. 34, fig. 5a.

The protoGonch is decussated with minute riblets.

One specimen among a lot of Sargasum weed.
Lilorina irrorata Say. S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 69, fig. 6.

Abundant on culms of marsh grass that is partially submerged at high tide.
Serpulorbis (Vermicularia) spirata (Philippi). S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 51, fig. 4.

Two specimens, inside.
Caecum pulchcllum Stimpson.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 22.

Fairly common in sand.
Triphoris perversum nigrocinctum C. B. Adams. S C J

Gould, Invertebrata of Massachusetts, fig. 522, 1870.

Occasional inside.

The apex is not smooth in unworn specimens of tliis species but finely can-
cellated by radial riblets which cross two spiral threads.
Cerithiopsis (Eumeta) subulata Montagu.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 52, fig. 1; and pi. 20, fig. 4.

Uncommon, inside.

For other species of this and the preceding, see forthcoming paper by Bartsch.
Seila adamsii H. C. Lea. S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 52, fig. 5.

Common inside. (See Osborn.)

142 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Cerithium floridanum Morch.

Dall, Trans. \Yagner Free Inst., \ol. 3, pi. 14, fig. 10.

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 326, fig. 4.

Four specimens.
Bittium {Diastoma) virginicum Henderson and Bartsch. S C O J

Henderson and Bartsch, U. S. Nat. Mus. Prof., vol. 47, p. 419, pi. 14, fig. 3.

Common, inside, on eel-grass beds.
Strombus pugilis Linne. S C O J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 118, fig. 3.

Occasional outside, common in Lookout bight. (See Osborn.)

Called S. alatus by Stimpson and Osborn, none of this form was found by me.
Cypraea exanthema Linne. C J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, pi. 70, fig. 2.

Rare, outside; one only, ditto Coues.
Ovulum uniplicata Sovverby. S O J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 135, fig. 2.

Fairly common on sea fans (Leptogoryia virgulata). I have found both the
yellow and orange Leptogorgias under one wharf^ each with Ovulum of its
owTi color. In company with them were Pteria eximia.
Dolium galea Linne. S C O J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 139, fig. 1 .

Occasional on outer beach.
Cassis inflaia Shaw. S C J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, pi. 71, fig. 5.

Common on outer beach.
Cassis tuber osa Linne.

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 138, fig. 1; and p. 139, fig. 4.

Common on outer beach.
Eupleura caudaia Say. S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 11.

Md. Geo. Sur., Plio.-Pleisto., pi. 49, figs. 7 and 8.

Occasional, inside and out.
Urosalpinx cinereus Say. C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 6.

Md. Geo. Surv., Plio.-Pleisto., pi. 49, figs. 9 and 10.

Common, inside and out. (See Osborn.)
Purpura haemastoma Linne. S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 46, figs. 2a and 2b.

Common on the jetties.
Columbella (Anachis) avara Say. S C O J

Figures 33 and 34.

Fairly common, inside and out. Out of 22 one has 10 ribs, eight have 11 ribs,
six have 12 ribs, five have 13 ribs, one has 14 ribs, and one has 15 ribs.
Columbella {Anachis) translirata Ravenel.

Figures 35 and 36.

Fairly common, inside and out.
Columbella {Anachis) translirata similis Ravenel.

Figure 32. Same as C. translirata but about half its size when adult.

One specimen, inside.

19S1] Marine Molluscan Shells of Beaufort 143

Columhella (Anachis) ohesa C. B. Adams. S C J

Dall, U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 404, 1900.

Occasional, inside.
Columhella (Astyris) lunata Say. S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 16.

Common, inside.
Alectrion acuta Say.

Figures 30 and 31.

Two specimens, inside.
Alectrion (Hima) ambigua (Montagu). S J

Figures 18, 19 and 20.

Three specimens, inside. These specimens differ from Haitian specimens by
having nine instead of thirteen or fourteen ribs and in being slightly less
shouldered.
Alectrion (Hima) vibex (Say). S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 8.

Abundant, "on the grassy sand-flats at the edges of the salt marshes, where
it replaces A. obsoleta, found also, but less frequently, upon exposed mud-
flats." Osborn.
Alectrion {Ilyanassa) obsoleta (Say). S C O J

DaU, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 9.

Md. Geo. Surv., Plio.-Pleisto., pi. 49, figs. 3 and 4.

Very abundant, inside. (See Coues and Osborn.)

Figure 37 is a carinated form of this species.
Alectrion (Tritia) trivittata (Say). S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 48, fig. 13; and pi. 50, fig. 7.

Uncommon, inside.
Busycon carica (Gmelin). S C O J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 70, fig. 2.

Common, especially inside on sand flats. (See Coues and Osborn.)
Busycon perversum (Linne) . S C J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 71, fig. 1.

Occasional, chiefly outside. (See Coues.)
Busycon (Sycotypus) canaliculaium (Linne). S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 13, fig. 1.

Occasional, inside.

Stimpson also records Busycon pyrum.
Fasciolaria dista^is Lam. S C O J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 86, fig. 3.

Fairly common, inside on mud flats. (See Osborn.)
Fasciolaria tulipa Linne. S C

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 86, fig. 2.

"One mutilated specimen." Coues.
Fasciolaria gigantea Kiener. S C J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 86, fig. 1.

Occasional, outer beach, rarely entire.
Marginella apicina Menke.

Figure 21.

Several, inside, bluish and fossil-looking.

144 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Oliva say ana Ravenel. S C J

Arnold, Sea-beacb at Ebb-tide, p. 400, fig. 2.

Common, especially outside.
Olivella mutica Say. S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 34, fig. 1.

Common, inside.
Olivella mutica nitidula Dillwyn.

Larger and less slender.

One specimen, inside.
Mangilia (Kurtziella) cerina Kurtz & Stimpson. S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 44, fig. 16.

Occasional, inside and out.
Mangilia plicosa C. B. Adams. S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 50, fig. 14.

Fairly common, inside and out.
Terebra {Acus) dislocata Say. S C O J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 90, pi. 5, fig. 2.

Abundant, inside.
Terebra (Acus) concava Say. S J

Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, p. 24.

Fairly common, inside.
Tornalina canaliculaia Say. S C J

Md. Geo. Surv., Plio.-Pleisto., pi. 42, figs. 5 and 6.

Abundant, inside.
Bulla amygdala Dillwyn. S C J

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 350, fig. 1 .

One small specimen, inside, fossil-looking.

Stimpson and Coues also record B. solilaria.
Cavolina tridentata Forskal.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 66, fig. 113.

One specimen, inside in tow.
Melampus lineatus Say. S C J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bidl. 37, pi. 47, figs. 9 and 12.

Abundant, especially in brackish water.

SCAPHAPODA

Cadulus (Polyschides) telraschislus quadridentatus (Dall).

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 27, fig. 5.

One specimen, inside.
Cadulus (Polyschides) carolinensis Bush.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pi. 41, fig. 19.

Two specimens, inside.
Dentalium gouldi Dall.

Dall, U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 455, 1901.

Five specimens, inside.

Besides these five specimens, I have four which have six longitudinal ribs
throughout, with no finer threads between them. They are too small
for identification and look fossil. Still four other specimens have seven

PLATE 13

1931] Marine Molluscan Shells of Beaufort 145

longitudinal ribs throughout with no finer threads between them. The
largest has a diameter of 1.25 mm. They are very thick, and look fossil.
They may be D. disparile Orbigny.
Dentalium agile M. Sars.?

Sars, Remarkable Forms of Animal Life, p. 34, pi. 3, figs. 4 and 5.
Occasional, inside.
Dentalium malar a DaU.

Smooth, very slightly arched, slightly notched above and below with a short,

wide notch, on convex side prolonged as a wide slit.
Occasional, inside.
Dentalium eboreum Conrad.

Conrad, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 3, p. 27, 1846.
Fairly common, inside.
Dentalium leptum Bush.

Slender, with fine posterior striations.
Occasional, inside.
Dentalium filum Sowerby.

Straightish and slender, sculptured by regular anulations.
Occasional, inside.

The following also are reported by Stimpson :

Area adamsi, Lucina crenulatus Conrad (known as a fossil), Lepton lepidum,
Tellina fausta (a West Indian species), Macoma constricta (Brug.), Strig-
illa carnaria, Sportella constricta (Conrad) (known as a fossil), Solen liridis
Say (also reported by AUer), Saxicava arctica Linne, Clypidella piistvla,
Mangelia rubella, Mangelia filiformis Holmes, Murex spinicostaius, Can-
cellaria reticulata, Actaeon punctostriata Adams.

Osborn records Bela plicata.

NOTES ON THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA

By W. C. CoKER
Plates 14-35

Plants (the fruiting body) of this family varying from fibrous and
tough and leathery to waxy when wet, in some species hard and
brittle; form various, upright and fan-shaped to funnel-shaped (and
simple or branched) or shell-shaped to bracket-shaped and laterally
attached, or partially to completely spread out on the substratum
(resupinate) ; the hymenium borne only on one surface, or rarely
all over the fruit-body (amphigeneous), smooth (without teeth, pores
or gills) or nodulated or wrinkled; basidia simple and club-shaped,
usually with four spores (2-8). The great majority grow on dead
wood, some grow on the ground, and some are parasitic.

Most of the genera of this family are composed of very insignifi-
cant species of slight popular or economic interest, except where
involved in the rotting of timber. We have tried to treat fully only
a few of the genera, in others we include only a few species as rep-
resentative. All of the North American genera of this family are
being carefully monographed by Dr. Burt, and his work, if published,
is referred to under each genus. See also Massee: A Monograph of
the Thelephoraceae. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 25: 107. 1889; 27: 95.
1890, and Wakefield: Some Notes on the Genera of the Thelephoraceae.
Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 4: 301. 1914. See also Bourdot and Galzin
as cited under the genera. Interested students can turn to these
papers for a fuller treatment.

Many of the drawings of Corticium, Peniophora, Hypochnus, and
Coniophora were made by Mr. J. N. Couch, recently assistant in
Botany. Miss Alma Holland, assistant in Botany, has inked in most
of the drawings and made most of the spore drawings. The photo-
graphs and a good many of the drawings were made by the author.

Key to the Genera Treated

Parasitic on members of the Heath Family, causing galls or
other abnormalities; spore-bearing surface forming a thin,
adherent coat on the host Exobasidium (p. 147)

[ 146 1

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 147

Entirely resupinate on rotten wood; the context filled with

brown stellate bodies (cystidia) Asterostroma (p. 164)

Not as above in all respects.

Plant entirely resupinate, forming a crustaceous layer on

wood with no shelving margin, or if with a narrow

shelving margin then with dark spines in the hjinenium;

in one species of Aleurodiscus forming small cup-shaped,

centrally attached plants with the margin upturned all

around and in Corticium lilacino-fuscum and Peniophora

albomarginata there may be a very narrow shelving

margin.

Spores and basidia large to very large, the spores plump

with the surface spiny or minutely rough; plant

small, chalk-white or in one soecies thp Vi-irmani'iirv^

Addenda
Add to the literature list given on page 146 the following:
Hohnel and Litschauer, Beitragez. Kenntnis d. ^^^^^f ^^'f^^^^^^^f'^;
K. Akad. Wiss. Wien 115: 1549, with 10 text Ap- 1906; iib.
739 pis. 1-4 and 20 text figs. 1907; 117: 1081, with 10 text figs.
1908. This series treats many species of most of the genera m-
cluded by us.

^ taLu, tuugn ana elastic, but fleshy, repeatedly branched
into a thick mass of flat, contorted-anastomosing
branches; growing from rotting roots or stump bases.

Sparassis (p. 193)

EXOBASIDIUM

Parasitic on leaves, shoots and flowers of woody plants, mostly
if not entirely confined to the Ericaceae, and forming on the surface
of the host, which is usually hypertrophied or deformed into galls, a

148 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

layer composed rarely of basidia alone, or more rarely of a thin felted
layer of interwoven hyphae which bears basidia and conidiospores.
Basidia clavate, simple. Spores white, smooth, simple or septate.

The galls and other abnormalities produced vary so much, depend-
ing on what host or what part of the host is attacked, that many so-
called species names have been published depending on the kinds of
galls formed. Burt, who has studied the subject thoroughly, has
concluded that almost all of these belong to one species, E. Vaccinii
(Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 2: 627. 1915). He recognizes only two other
species or varieties, one E. Vaccinii uliginosi Boud., the other E.
Syniploci Ell. & Martin. The latter is parasitic on Symplocos tinc-
toria, but in it the basidia and basidiospores have not been found.
For an excellent article on the morphology of this group see Woronin,
Naturforsch, Ges. Freiburg, Verhandl. 4: 397. 1867.

Exobasidium Vaccinii (Fuck el) Woronin.

Plate 14

Characters of the genus: Basidia four-spored; basiospores 2.5-5
X 10-20[Ji.. (Burt). Occurring on many genera and species of the
Heath Family.

The most conspicuous and best known gall caused bj' E. Vaccinii
in North Carolina is the one called honeysuckle apples, which are
large, hollow, pale, sweetish, juicy formations often an inch or more
thick that many children know and eat. They are found on Azalea
nudiflora and A. atlantica and seem most abundant in the Coastal
Plain. Another remarkable hypertrophy occurs on Andromeda
Mariana, causing the flowers which are normally white and waxy
subcylindrical bells, to become changed into larger, greenish, more
open flowers with the petals more or less separated or quite free and
spreading. This is shown in our illustration, together with the nor-
mal flowers. This is the form that has been named E. Peckii.
11a. On Andromeda Mariana near east gate of campus. May 6, 1909. Photo.

CYPHELLA

Very small, cup-shaped or beaker-shaped or saucer-shaped, at-
tached by the center with a short stalk usually, and often hanging
downward, the lower, concave surface covered by the hymenium;
texture submembranaceous; basidia simple. The species grow on

PLATE 14

EXOBASIDIUM VACCINII on ANDROMEDA MARIANA.

Normal flowers above; hypcrtrophied ones below.

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 149

live mosses, dead stems and leaves of herbs, fallen twigs, branches
and bark of trees, etc. Two of the species recognized by Burt have
been reported from North Carolina by Curtis, and we are adding two
others. See Burt, Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1: 358. 1914; Bourdot and
Galzin, Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr. 26: 223. 1910.

Key to the Species

On living mosses; saucer- or petal-shaped, up to 1 cm. broad. . .C. muscigena (1)

On alder bark; small, cup-shaped, reddish-tawny C. fasciculata (2)

On bark of red cedar; very small, whitish, cup-shaped, spores

with a few long spines C. cupulaeformis (3)

On dead stems of herbs; cup-shaped, whitish C. capula (4)

1. Cyphella muscigena (Pers.) Fr.

Plate 30

This is the plant treated by me as Cantharellus retirugis (No.
3224) in an earlier paper (Journ. E. Mit. Sci. Soc. 35: 38. 1919).
Since then we have made three other collections of the plant, one
from the same spot a year later and two from other places. The two
last mentioned showed spores (from good spore prints) that averaged
longer than the two others, but otherwise there is no difference in the
plants. The basidia of all are small, club-shaped, rather abruptly
enlarged at the end, 7-7.5 \}^ thick, 4-spored. I cannot make out any
difference of importance between descriptions and illustrations of
Cantharellus retirugis and Cyphella muscigena.

3224. See above.

3931. On living moss (Ca//iarmMi), below Cobb's Terrace, January 8, 1920. Spores

pip-shaped, 3-4.2 X 7-9.7;u.
4010. Same spot and one on same kind of moss as No. 3224. Spores the same,

3.7-4.5 X 6-8.5ju.
4018. Near No. 3931, but on different moss, January 24, 1920. Spores 3-4.5 X

7.5-9.7/..

2. Cyphella fasciculata (Schw.) B. & C.

C fulva B. & Rav.

Plate 30

Cups gregarious in good numbers, and often in part densely fas-
cicled in groups or lines, about 0.6-3 mm. broad and same length,
attached in center by a short stalk about 0.3-0.8 mm. long; outer
surface of cup reddish-tawny, usually with one or two circular zones,

150 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

finely tomentose with curled hairs. Hymenium smooth, pale straw
or Hght buff, lining the inside of the cup, the mouth of which is whitish
and contracted or, when wet and fully mature, open.

Spores (of No. 4001, spore print) cylindric, curved, smooth, white,
2-3 X 7.5-lltx. Basidia 5-6.5[x thick, flat at end, with four very
small and short sterigmata.

4001. On dead Alnus twigs, January 22, 1920. Not fascicled in this collection.
4017. On dead Alnus twigs, January 24, 1920. Many densely fascicled groups in

this lot, also many single ones.

Common on branches of alder (as C. fulva) . Curtis.

3. Cyphella cupulaeformis Berk. & Rav.

Plate 30

Centrally attached by a very short stalk; plant up to 1.5 mm.
long by 2.5 mm. broad, cup-shaped or goblet-shaped, the outside
minutely scurfy and pale gray-brown, the hymenium inside the cup
smooth and about the color of the outside; the mouth open when
wet, collapsed and practically closed when dry.

Spores white, very remarkable in being set with six or more spines
which are about 3.7[). long, body of spore 4.5-5.5 X 5.5-6[x. The
spines do not appear until the spores are nearly grown, the spores
up to that time being smooth and oval; as the spines begin to develop
the spores appear simply angular for a while. Basidia club-shaped,
8[x in diameter.
4019. On decaying cedar limb, January 24, 1920.

4. Cyphella capula (Holmsk) Fr.

We have not yet found this and adapt the following from Burt
(1. c, p. 366).

Growing on dead stems of herbs and forming little whitish, pendu-
lous cups drawn out to a stalk, the entire plant about 1-3 mm. long
and 0.5-2 mm. broad; hymenium on the inside of the cup; outside
of the cup and stem glabrous; the cup margin irregular.

Spores white, flat on one side, 3-3.5 X 4.5-6^.
Common on stems of herbs. Curtis.

SOLENIA

Fruit bodies in the form of small to very small cups or tubes
which are commonlj' so closely set as to appear almost as a continu-
ous stratum to the naked eye. The cups are somewhat contracted

1921\ The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 151

at the mouths and are seated directly on the substratum or are sur-
rounded at base by a very deUcate weft of threads, the subiculum.
The smooth hymenium covers the inside of the cups. Basidia club-
shaped with usually 4 sterigmata. Spores smooth, white (at least in
S. poriaeformis). Distinguished from Cyphella by the more densely
crowded cups which often arise from a superficial weft, and in some
species by the more elongated, cylindrical cups.

A pecuHar genus that has been placed usually in the Polyporaceae,
but is probably better treated in the Thelephoraceae as its relation-
ship to Cyphella seems obvious. It is placed next to Cyphella in
Engler and Prantl's system (Hennings), and also by Bourdot and
Galzin (Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr. 26: 225. 1910), which see for a good
treatment of the French species. See also Rabenhorst, Krypt.
Flora Deutschland, etc. 11: 390. 1884.

To represent this genus we are including only one species. In
American herbaria are represented commonly about ten other species
among which the most widely distributed are S. anomala, S. Candida,
S. ochracea, S. stipitata and S. villosa. All or nearly all known species
grow on dead wood and branches or dead herbs (one is said to grow
on dung).

Solenia poriaeformis (DC.) Fuckel.

Plates 15 and 30

Plant forming encrusting, non-removable patches quite variable
in size and irregular in outline, which often fuse to make much elon-
gated areas with rather definite margin; composed of a layer next
the bark made up of extremely delicate, interwoven, white threads,
about 1.2-2.5[ji, thick, in which are imbedded for about ^3-^2 their
depth, minute, circular, or somewhat flattened cups, about 4 or 5
to a millimeter, which usually cover the entire surface and nearly
touch when expanded, are about 90-1 10[x deep and are covered all
over the outside with white, granular, easily removable powder, while
the inside is covered with the smooth hymenium. Under moderate
power the cups look like citron covered with sugar powder, and when
the powder is rubbed off they are seen to be deep brown, contrasting
strongly in section view with the white felt in which they are sitting.
Wall of cups about 30-40[jl thick, brown, the hymenium occupying
a little less than half of this thickness and less dark than the closely
woven outer part; margin incurved and partly closing the cups even

152 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

when wet. The color of the plant in the fresh state a dull white,
which is a little darkened by the small openings of the cups and is
almost entirely due to the fine white powder covering the exposed
parts of the matrix as well as the outside of the cups. When very
young the plant is thin and sterile, with a minutely granular appear-
ance. The cups first appear as very small openings extending to
within 3^ mm. of the margin; later, when expansion ceases, they
are formed almost to the marginal line.

Spores (of No. 4686) white, smooth, oval, 3.5-4.5 x 5-7.5[i.
Basidia clavate, 4-spored, Q.5]x thick. A most peculiar plant differ-
ing from other species of Solenia in the short, partly embedded cups.
We have compared our plants with several collections from America
and one from Bresadola at the New York Botanical Garden and find
them similar in all essentials. Most other collections have the cups
less crowded and in some they are broader. Our plant seems to be
a dense, small-cupped form Bourdot and Galzin give microscopic
characters which agree with ours, as spores 4-5 x 4.5-6.5[X; basidia
5-8 X 18-24^, 2-4 sterigmata; and Dr. Burt writes me that a col-
lection made by him in Sweden has spores 4.5-5 X 5-6^. Hennings,
in the Pflanzenfamilien, gives the spores as 3-3.5 x ll-14ix, which
is probably an error.
4275. On dead bark of old live grapevine (F. aestivalis), April 15, 1920. Spores

pure white, short, oval.
4317. On bark of Vitis, May 28, 1920.

4686. On dead bark of live, wild grapevines, November 13, 1920.
4700. On bark of live grapevine, December 4, 1920. Poorly developed specimens

with few cups.

ALEURODISCUS

Plants in the species here treated growing on the bark of living
trees or dead shoots and forming entirely resupinate, white, small,
thin or thickish crusts with well-defined margins (the margin at times
is vague in A. botryosus) and hard, brittle flesh; or in one case form-
ing small cups with the margin free all around. Basidia and spores
large to very large; spores white, minutely punctate or spiny; no
cystidia or setae present, but paraphyses often of peculiar form occur
in the hymenium or throughout.

Other groups of species included by Burt in this genus, but not
treated by us, have other characters separating them from the Ster-
eums. See Burt, Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 5: 177. 1918; Bourdot and

PLATE 15

ALEURODISCUS MACRODENS. No. 4734. [Above.
SOLENIA PORIAEFORMIS. No. 4686. [Below.]

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 153

Galzin, Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr. 28: 349. 1912; Lloyd, Mycological
Notes No. 62: 926, PI. 147, figs. 1666-1681 and PL 148, figs. 1682-
1688, and PI. 145, fig. 1652. 1920. For morphology and cytology of A.
amorphus see Am. Jom-n. Bot. 7: 445, Pis. 31-33. 1920.

Key to the Species Included

On bark of living trees.

Spores very large, not smaller than 12 X 15m-

Flesh pliable and leathery when wet, margin free and up-
turned all around A. Oakesii (1 )

Flesh hard and woody even when damp, margin not free or
scarcely so.
On post oak or white oak; spores oval-elliptic, minutely

punctate A. candidus (2)

On elm; spores subspherical to short-oval, very minutely

punctate (some appearing smooth) A. candidus var.

sphaerosporus (3)
On ash; spores subrectangular, set with a few large,

blunt spines A. macrodens (4)

On cedars; spores subspherical to short-oval, covered with

minute, slender spicules A. nivosus (5)

Spores not larger than 7 X 12^1.

On maples (said also to grow on ash, elm and white oak);

thinner and smaller than any of the above, irregular A. acerinus (6)

On dead shoots of blackberry, lilac, etc. Spores 7. .5-11 X

]4-19n A. botryosus (7)

1. Aleurodiscus Oakesii (B, & C.) Cooke.

Plate 30

Small, saucer-shaped or shallow cup-shaped, rather broadly
attached by the center, the margin quite free all around and curved
up when damp, incurved over the hymenium when dry, the exposed
outer (lower) surface white and fibrous, especially on margin and near
attachment so as to appear tomentose; hymenium even or a little
wavy, minutely pulverulent, pale avellaneous (light fawn brown)
both when wet and dry. Flesh about 0.5 mm. thick, leathery and
pliable when wet, rigid when dry.

Spores ovoid, white, minutely papillate-warted, 12-16 x 15-20[x.
Basidia very large, 15-16tJi. thick with 4 large sterigmata. Para-
physes often moniliform by constrictions mostly with prong-like
short branches at the tip or lower down.

The plant resembles in form a small Stereum attached by the
center. Single plants are about 3-5 mm. broad when damp and ex-
panded, but they fuse more or less completely when they touch, so

154 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

that elongated or irregular groups are produced which may be a cm.
or more long and broad. When two plants meet and fuse a low ridge
is left on the hymenium. This plant is easily distinguished from the
other species of the genus here treated by the saucer-shaped form
and pliable, leathery texture when wet.

3937. On bark of Ulmus near upper end of Scott's Hole, January 11, 1920. Photo.
Upper district. Bark of white oak. Curtis (as Corticium).

2. Aleurodiscus candidus (Schw.) Burt.
Stereum carididum Schw.

Plates 16 and 30

A. small, entirely resupinate plant, growing on the bark of trees
and forming hard, crustaceous, chalk-white patches of irregular shape
and definite outline, usually under 2 cm. in diameter vith the margin
free so as to show its imder side which is blackish. Surface smooth,
minutely pulverulent under a lens, showing irregularities of the bark
over which it is spread. Flesh thick for so small a plant, about 0.5-
1 mm. thick, white or pale creamy, quite hard and brittle. Under a
lens the flesh shows a rather faint stratification with as many as 5 or
6 layers, each probably representing a period of fruiting, but the
time required to form each layer is not yet known.

Spores white, subspherical to short-oval, minutely papillate,
12.5-16.7 X 16.6-22^1, most about 15 X 20A[i. Basidia large, club-
shaped, ll-14[x thick, with four very long sterigmata. Mixed with
the basidia are delicate, dense, hyphal paraphyses branched like a
bush above and much encrusted with granular crystals.

The plant is very common in Chapel Hill on bark of post oak and
white oak, and is very easily recognized by its color, habit and place
of growth. Burt describes the spores as smooth, but suggests that
they may prove to be minutely rough walled. We find them min-
utely papillate.

1377a. On bark of post oak trees, Movember 28, 1913.
1517. On bark of a post oak tree, December 14, 1914.
3827. On Hving post oak, December 6, 1919.
Salem. Schweinitz.
Low and middle districts, bark of trees. Curtis.

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 155

3. Aleurodiscus candidus var. sphaerosporus n. var.

Plate 30

Plant exactly like A. candidus except for smaller average size of
the crusts and for the more spherical spores. The chalk-like, min-
utely pulverulent surface and hard, friable, pale flesh are the same
in both. The smaller, more broken up pads seem to be the result
of the more fragmented and mossy bark of the elm. The spore differ-
ence is constant here and taken with the different host furnishes about
the right grounds for establishing a variety.

Spores (of No. 3902) nearly spherical, white, very faintly rough,
13-20 X 15.5-24^, most about 16.3 X 19.2pL. Basidia large, about
13[x thick. The spores are even more faintly rough than in A. can-
didus.

To be found on most elm trees in Chapel Hill.

2021. On elm {Ulmus alata), March 10, 1916.
3902. On elm (C7. alaia), December 16, 1919.
3907. On elm {U. alala), December 18, 1919. Spores exactly as in No. 3902.

4. Aleurodiscus macrodens n. sp.

Plates 15 and 31

Forming irregular, often somewhat elongated patches about 2 mm,
to 2 cm. long with well-defined margins and with much the aspect of
A. candidus; surface minutely pulverulent, pure white or when old
and weathered pale cream; entire thickness only about 150-190[x,
the structure in section much obscured by very small crystals and the
densely branched paraphyses.

Basidia entirely embedded, 12-15[x thick, irregular and bent, with
four long, stout sterigmata, which only reach the surface by their
tips. Spores (of No. 4734, print) commonly rectangular in outline,
the surface set with a few large, irregularly placed, bluntly pointed
spines which are up to 4[ji, long; body of spore 11.5-15 x 18.5-27[ji.

In passing the plant would be taken for A. candidus, but when
examined is seen to be much thinner with the closely pressed margin
not showing a dark underside.. The spores are remarkable and
unlike any others in the genus.
4734. On bark of a living tree of Fraxinus, December 14, 1920. Type.

156 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

5. Aleurodiscus nivosus (B. & C.) H. & Litsch.

Stereum acerimmi var nivosum B. & C.
Plates 16 and 31

Plant forming crust-like elongated patches of definite outline,
about 1-23 mm. long by 1-4 mm. broad, the elongated axis vertical,
at first thin like a streak of whitewash, then thickening into a mat-
tress-like patch about 0.5-0.7 mm. thick with a free margin that is
black below; in age cracking across to make smaller areas as in
Stereum jrustulosum. Surface always chalk-white. Flesh brown be-
low a thin surface layer; hard, dry and rather friable.

Spores (of No. 3897) white, oval, with a small, distinct mucro and
short, sharp, dehcate spines, 12.9-15.9 x 15.9-21.5[jl. A few spores
show a remarkable variation in having small blunt warts like a Hyd-
num.

Very common, and to be found on almost every cedar tree.
Differs from A. candidus in more spiny spores, proportionately
narrower, longer and thinner fruiting bodies, and in growth on cedar.
Burt's description of the spores as smooth is incorrect for our speci-
mens. The close-set, slender spicules distinguish the plant at once.
Burt also describes the plant as thin with margin not free as in A.
candidus. This is true only for the young condition. As growth
continues the flesh becomes thicker and cracks across and the margin
becomes free and shows the blackish outer (under) side.

3897. On bark of living cedar, December 14, 1919.
3920. On living cedar tree, December 22, 1919.

6. Aleurodiscus acerinus (Pers.) H. & Litsch.

A smaller and thinner species than the others treated ; crustaceous,
irregular to subcircular or rarely elongated, up to about 3 mm. wide
or when elongated up to a cm. long; chalk-white, minutely pulver-
ulent, the abrupt margin definitely outlined. Hymenium contain-
ing slender branched paraphyses that are much encrusted with crys-
tals.

Basidia clavate, about half as large as in A. candidus, sterigmata
four, elongated. Spores (according to Burt) white, smooth, 6-7 X
10-12[JL.

2020. On bark of living deciduous tree, December, 1915. We have misplaced
this collection which was seen and determined by Burt, and so have not
been able to make original observations on the spores.
Common on bark of trees. Curtis (as Stereum).

PLATE 16

ALEURODISCUS CANDIDUS. No. 3827 [above
ALEURODISCUS NIVOSUS. No. 3897 [below].

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 157

7. Aleurodiscus botryosus Burt.

Plate 31

Entirely effused to form elongated patches up to 5-6 cm. or
smaller, more scattered patches. Surface under a lens more or less
lacunose and granular-looking except in the thickest places where
it is continuous; pure white or creamy, smooth, and removable as a
soft, flexible membrane when wet; thickness in our collection only
45-65tx, nearly all of which consists of the hymenium, in which are
embedded a large number of subspherical, amorphous, irregular
bodies, probably of a proteid nature. Many bottle brush paraphyses
present in hymenium.

Basidia 11-12^ thick, with four long, curved sterigmata 14-16tJL
long. Spores white, minutely rough, oval with an abrupt mucro,
flattish on one side, very granular when shed, sprouting freely over
night in a damp chamber, 7.5-10.5 x 14-19[jl.

Except for its thinness, amounting to scarcely more than a hy-
menium on the substratum, our plant agrees well with Burt's species
and our determination has been confirmed by him.

4710. On dead blackberry in low place, Glen Burnie Farm, December 5, 1920.

4724. On standing dead shoot of lilac, December 12, 1920. Spores white, surface
minutely warted, 8.5-11 X 14.8-18.5^.

4740. On dead vine of Vitis (aestivalis ?) December 18, 1920. Spores white, sur-
face minutely rough, 8.5-11 X 14. 8-18. 5m.

CONIOPHORA

Entirely resupinate, fleshy, subcoriaceous or membranaceous;
hymenium undulate, tubercular, granular or even; basidia simple;
spores smooth or slightly angular, ochraceous or at times nearly color-
less. Saprophytic on dead wood, often causing serious decay of
structural timber. Burt reports three species from North Carohna
and nineteen from North America. See Burt, Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard.
4: 237. 1917. Also see Massee in Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 25: 128.
1889. We are including but one species.

Coniophora arida (Fr.) Karsten.

Plate 31

Irregularly effused, membranaceous when wet, forming long,
thin, narrow patches about 1-3 cm. broad by several cms. long and
about 175[j. thick on average, with indeterminate margins. Color

158 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

when dry a warm buff to buffy brown, usually darker in center.
Surface even, pulverulent, sparingly cracked in places; context made
up of loosely packed, thin-walled, hyaline hyphae 2-3.7[jl thick;
hymenium closely packed. No cystidia and no crystals present.

Spores fuscous in a good spore-print, smooth, elliptic with a dis-
tinct mucro, 6.6-7.2 X 9.3-1 Llpi. Basidia club-shaped, swollen
considerably at the distal end; extending out above the hymenium
up to 20[JL (counting the sterigmata) ; 8.5[x thick, sterigmata 4, prong-
like, curved.

4219. On bark and wood of dead pine, March 23, 1920.
4235. On bark of pine log, April 15, 1920.

PENIOPHORA

Entirely resupinate as a thin encrusting layer, as in Corticium,
but differing from the latter in having specialized cystidia included
in the hymenium and usually projecting as far as the basidia or
beyond them. We are including one (P. alhomarginata) which often
has a narrowly reflexed margin. The cystidia are commonly warted
on the distal half, in which case they are easily distinguished. Spores
smooth, white or (when fresh) pink. Hymenochaete differs in having
dark, smooth, spine-like setae projecting far above the basidia. The
pink color shown by a fresh spore print in several species we have
studied fades out after a few months in the herbarium. We have in-
cluded six species to represent the genus, which is a large one and
often difficult to distinguish from Corticium. See Massee in Journ.
Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 25: 140. 1889; Bourdot and Galzin, Bull. Soc. Myc.
Fr. 28: 372. 1912; Cooke, Grevillea 8: 17. 1879; Bresadola, Ann. Myc.
1: 100. 1903 (as Kneiffia). See also Gleocystidium as treated by
Bourdot and Galzin in Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr. 28: 354. 1912. This last
genus includes species usually treated under Peniophora, but its rec-
ognition, as Burt has well said, would lead to difficulties without com-
pensating advantages. Other proposed genera as Peniophorella and
Gloeopeniophora have similar objections. For a species parasitic on
chrysanthemum {Corticium (Peniophora) Chrysanihemi Plowr.) see
Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. for 1904, p. 90. 1905.

Key to the Species Treated

On pine wood, making an extensive, pale, sub-translucent,
parchment -like membrane when dry; sub-waxy when
wet P. gigantea (1)

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 159

On deciduous woods, mostly with bark on.

Margin distinct and often uplifted a little in places.
Deep brown with a conspicuous whitish border; sur-
face velvety, not cracking P. albomarginata (2)

Brownish purple; finely cracked superficially when

dry P. violaceo-lividum (3)

Margin very thin and indistinct, closely adnate;

Light gray to white with creamy areas, texture loose
and velvety-looking; spores very long and narrow,

2-2.6 X 13-16.61X P. longispora (4)

Not as above.

Deep blackish brown when wet, a much hghter gray-
brown when dry; only 55-75/x thick; surface glab-
rous, nodulated, cracked to the wood when dry. P. cinerea (6)
Whitish to ochraceous buff; thick (200-250m), sur-
face glabrous, cracking when dry to show the pure
white tissue beneath; margin thin and fading away. P. mulata (7)
Margin distinct but irregular and byssoid when growing,
in places connected with extensive ropy strands; color
of surface buffy to chamois P. filamentosa (5)

1. Peniophora gigantea (Fr.) Massee.

Plate 31

Patches up to 8 cm. wide by 14 cm. long, adnate, sub-waxy; when
old smooth and even, when young shghtly hypochnoid; color varies
with age, grayish white or hght cream to vinaceous buff when old;
surface minutely granular under a lens; margin indeterminate when
young, later determinate. Structure, in section, up to 1 mm. thick,
made up of two distinct layers (apparently three before the applica-
tion of KOH) of about equal thickness; lower layer consisting of
closely packed, septate, considerably branched, clamp-connected
hyphae (clamp connections are difficult to make out) 4:.2\x thick which
are more loosely packed at surface of substratum and become very
closely packed toward the center of the plant; upper layer made up
of closely packed, almost vertical hyphae with many faintly encrusted
cystidia scattered throughout, which are 9.3-ll.l[i, thick. Basidia
club-shaped with the end swollen, 4 x 11-18[jl.

Spores oval, hyahne, smooth, 2-3.5 X 3.7-5.5[jl.

Our plant agrees completely with plants of this species from
Bresadola at the New York Botanical Garden Herbarium. The
dried plant has a subtranslucent, parchment-like appearance.
4306. On ground side of new pine sills and leaves which had been on ground four
months, Clark's Sawmill, May 10, 1920.
Common. Curtis (as Corticium).

160 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

2. Peniophora albomarginata (Schw.) Massee.

Stereum alhohacUum (Schw.) Fr.

Plates 18 and 31

Entirely resupinate or, when on the sides of branches, with a
free shelving margin which is rarely over 7 mm. wide, beginning as
subcircular or oblong patches which may later fuse into an extensive
membrane, color of hymenium when damp a rich deep brown (about
bister brown of Ridgway) with a conspicuous white margin which is
sharply delimited and not byssoid; when dry the brown lightens to
about avellaneous with a darker ring just behind the white margin;
shelving part brown on back, inherently fibrous and roughish, not
tomentose, obscurely zoned. The resupinate part can be removed
from the wood without much difficulty as a pliable thickish membrane
like chamois skin, which in cross section is concolorous, fibrous and
about 0.6-0.8 mm. thick. The hymenium is not shining but has a
velvety, glaucous appearance. When drying the plant does not
crack, but remains a complete membrane.

Spores (of No. 3849) smooth, white, elliptic, some bent, 3-4 x
6.5-9.3[i-. Basidia clavate, 7.2^ thick; sterigmata four. Cystidia
pointed, encrusted with crystals.

This is treated as Stereum alhobadium by Burt. We are not
using the name alhobadium because we do not want to make a new
combination.

3849. Dead limbs of peach or cherry in a brush heap, December 9, 1919.
3873. On fallen branch of ironwood (Carpinus) in Arboretum, December 12, 1919.
3932. On dead sycamore limb, January 10, 1920.

Hartsville, S. C. Several collections, December, 1919. Coker.
Low and middle districts on trunks and branches. Curtis.

3. Peniophora violaceo-livida (Somm.) Bres. in Bourdot and Galzin,

Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr. 28: 405. 1912.

Corticium violaceo-lividum (Somm.) Fr.

Plate 31

Entirely resupinate and crustaceous or rarely the margin curled
up for 1-2 mm., thin and pliable and leathery when growing, the
margin appressed and rather definite but extending with short fibers;
the very margin whitish purple, then a handsome brownish purple,
the older surface losing most of the purple and becoming dry and

PLATE 17

PENIOPHORA MUTATA. No. 3993 [top].

PENIOPHORA LONGISPORA. No. 4242 [center].

CORTICIUM ARACHNOIDEUM. No. 4235a [below].

19S1] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 161

thinner and finely cracked, the cracks involving only the surface
layer. Flesh brown, fibrous, about a quarter mm. thick near margin.
The plant appears first as small, scattered patches with a plush-like
surface which rapidly extend and coalesce to form large patches up
to 6 cm. broad and 15 cm. long, perhaps larger at times. If protected
in a Petri dish the growing margin becomes densely tomentose with
short fibers of the same handsome purplish color. At full maturity
the surface becomes glabrous.

Basidia club-shaped, 5.5[x thick, with four sterigmata. Spores
(of No. 3914) white, elliptic, smooth, 3.6-4.4 x 6-8.5[x, rarely up to 10[jl.
Cystidia long, pointed, often crooked or constricted below, extending
beyond the surface (at times twice as far as in the drawing), set with
crystals. Bourdot and Galzin give the spores as 9-12 x 3-4. 5[x;
the basidia as 6-8 x 20-26[x

3914. On a dead stem of privet, December 20, 1919.

3946. On twig of Chinese privet {Ligustrum Chinense) in Arboretum, January 16,

1920.
3964. On Baccharis in Arboretum, January 17, 1920.

4. Peniophora longispora (Pat.)

Plates 17 and 32

Plant entirely resupinate, in patches up to 5 cm. long by 3 cm.
wide and up to 148tJL thick; open, hypochnoid, finely pubescent and
somewhat resembling a mold; color light gray to white with small
creamy areas, color depending upon age, margin indeterminate.
Context made up of very loosely packed, much branched, clamp-
connected, unencrusted hyphae 2.6u. thick. Hymenium of very
inconspicuous basidia, mostly about 4.5[jl thick, and many cystidia
which are about 3.7 x 40[x, more or less pointed and encrusted with
crystals and projecting far beyond the basidia. In untreated sec-
tions there is a distinctly darker region in the hymenium indicating
the presence of numerous crystals.

Spores pure white, very long and pecuhar, 2-2.6 X 13-16. 6[x,
pointed at both ends, straight or slightly bent and with two or three
conspicuous droplets.

Bresadola's measurements in this species (as Kneifiia, 1. c, p. 105)
are: spores 2.5 x 12-15[jl; basidia 5-6 x 30-32[jl; cystidia 3-4.5 x
70-90[x, encrusted with granules.

4242. On bark of rotten oak limb, near Meeting of the Waters.
4250. On decorticated sycamore (?) wood, April 15, 1920.

162 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

4302. On rotten, decorticated oak wood, May 9, 1920. Spores white, smooth,
very long-elUptic, some bent, 2.5-3.7 X 12-16^. Cystidia thickly en-
crusted, slender, 4ju thick and up to 60ai long.

5. Peniophora filamentosa (B. & C.) Burt. Ms.

Plate 32

Entirely effused and creeping irregularly over rotting bark or
wood; margin distinct but irregular and byssoid when growing, in
places connected with extensive ropy strands; surface when mature
varying from dull buffy tan to chamois or even a deeper cinnamon
buff at times, often with an olive tint, especially in youth; surface
even, but responding to the substratum, having the appearance of
chamois skin. Structure in section up to 350^ thick, composed of
loosely woven, rather deUcate, brownish hyphae, 3-4.5[jl thick, with-
out clamp connections, most of them heavily encrusted with crystals,
some not; cystidia brownish, encrusted throughout or in places,
about 6. Six thick including crystals and projecting ll-30ix. They are
hardly more than protruding hyphae and intergrade with them com-
pletely.

Basidia 4-spored, 5-6[x thick. Spores not found in our collection,
said by Massee to be oblong-elhpsoid, 3 x 6[jl.
4245. On decorticated, rotten frondose wood, April 15, 1920.
4264. On rotten deciduous wood, April 17, 1920.
4607. On living and dead dogwood, July 31, 1920.

6. Peniophora cinerea (Pers.) Cooke.

Plate 32

Extensively effused and combining into elongated irregular
patches up to 10 or more cm. long at times, closely adnate and not
removable, the rather definite margin not byssoid; in some fully
developed specimens becoming thicker, almost as in Aleurodiscus;
when damp a deep blackish brown with faint purplish tint, the sub-
stance rather waxy; when dry a much lighter grayish-brown, about
ash color and cracking imperfectly into small irregular areas, the
crack extending to the substratum. Surface glabrous, moderately
nodulated both when wet and dry, nodules structural and not due
to irregularities of the wood, although any irregularities also show.
Entire thickness about 55-75a.

PLATE 18

t.K'*

1

%i

W

„•> ,

«.ft

t' r-

STEREUM FRUSTULOSUM. No, 10-i2 [left].
PENIOPHORA ALBOMARGINATA. No. 3849 [right].

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 163

Basidia 4.8-5.5[jl thick, 4-spored, sterigmata very delicate. Cys-
tidia oval to club-shaped, set with crystals, imbedded. Spores a
clear salmon color, sausage-shaped, 2.5-3.4 x 7.4-9.5[jl.

Our No. 4045 when compared with plants in the Curtis Herbar-
ium and with others in the New York Botanical Garden Herbarium
labelled C. cinereum agreed exactly. Bresadola (I.e., p. 104) gives the
spores as 2.5-3 x 8-11[jl, cylindrical and curved.
4045. On bark of dead branch of Crepe Myrtle, January 28, 1920. (Described

above.)
4299. On bark of fallen oak limb, May 9, 1920. Spores curved-elliptic, 2.8-3.5 X

7-8.5m.

Common on bark of limbs. Curtis (as Corticium).

7. Peniophora mutata (Pk.) Bres. In Bourdot and Galzin, Bull*
Soc. Myc. Fr. 28: 399. 1912.

Plates 17 and 32

Extensively encrusting the bark, forming large, thickish patches
up to 20 cm. or more long and 6 cm. broad; white, then buff or
ochraceous-buff, when wet nodulated and veined, but shrinking on
drying and becoming plain, the smooth hymenium cracking to show
the pure white, fibrous layer below which rarely cracks all the way
through. Margin very thin and fading away to a film. Plant about
0.2-0.25 mm. thick, of which about half is the hymenium, the other
half the white fibrous layer.

Spores white, rod-elUptic, 3.4-4.2 x 10-13. T^ji.. Basidia 7.7-8[x
thick. Cystidia very few and scattered, mostly deep in the hymen-
ium, a very few at the surface, club-shaped and covered with crystals.

This agrees in all respects with Peck's Corticium mutatum. Plants
so determined at the New York Botanical Garden are the same as
ours, and the careful description of Bourdot and Galzin agrees in all
important particulars. They give the spores as averaging slightly
longer, 3-5 x 8-16[jl. There is also little doubt that this is P. suh-
gigantea (Berk.) Massee, which was described by Berkeley from a
collection of Ravenel on Magnolia glauca. Our plants are exactly
Uke those distributed by Ellis on bark of Magnoha (N. Am. Fungi,
No. 717). Another specimen on beech from Pennsylvania (at the
New York Botanical Garden), which looks the same, was determined
by Cooke as this. He says it is near Corticium laeve. A collec-
tion labelled C. laeve Fr.irom. Society Hill, S. C, on Magnolia glauca
by Curtis is identical as is also a plant that Ellis distributed in his

164 JOURNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SOCIETY [February

North American Flora (No. 719 as C. laeve on Magnolia). Another
from England (Berkeley) has the same appearance. They do not,
however, agree with the description of that species by Wakefield
(Trans. Brit. Nye. Soc. 4: 115. 1912).
3993. On bark of dead Magnolia iripelala, January 21, 1920.

ASTEROSTROMA

Effused on rotting wood; soft and spongy; particularly charac-
terized by deep brown, stellate cells (cystidia) included in the con-
text and making up its greatest bulk; pale, simple, protruding cystidia
also present in our species. We include the only species we have
found.

Asterostroma cervicolor (B. & C.) Massee

Plate 34

Extensively effused on very rotten deciduous wood, forming
irregular patches up to 8-10 cm. or more wide and long; surface
dull, minutely pruinose, pale fawn color when dry, deep dull brown
when wet; margin fading out, indistinct, nearly concolorous. Tex-
ture soft and spongy except for a crust-like upper layer which may
crack a httle when dry, the thick, softer context not cracking. Dis-
tinctly but slowly bibulous, and soggy when wet.

Plant up to nearly 1 mm, thick. Hymenium 30-35^ thick, fol-
lowed immediately by a very dense layer of stellate cells mixed with
much granular material, below this a thick, much more open tissue,
composed most conspicuously of the large stellate cells which char-
acterize the genus. Mixed with these are bits of imperfect, frag-
mentary, very slender, hyahne hyphae and granular detritus. In
the more open layer there may be a thin, much denser layer just
like that beneath the hymenium. Many fat droplets are present
in the cells of the hymenium.

Basidia projecting about 7-lOtJL, irregularly pole-shaped, about
4-6tJL thick, with four slender, straight sterigmata about 4[jl long.
Cystidia broadly spike-shaped, almost colorless, with moderately thick
walls, not encrusted, projecting a little farther than the basidia.
Stellate cells deep brown, with about 4-12 spine-like arms which
radiate from a central point and may be branched but are usually
simple; their walls thick to very thick; arms variable in length, run-
ning from very short to 82tJi. long. These stellate bodies are evi-

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 165

dently of cellular origin and are formed apparently through the

development of a single cell. Spores cream with a faint fawn tint

in a heavy print, subspherical, angled or slightly tuberculate, 5-6[i

thick,

4507. On very rotten oak wood and bark, south of athletic field, July 25, 1920.

HYPOCHNUS

Entirely resupinate, dry and coriaceous, felt-like or hypochnoid,
that is, with the hyphae loosely woven throughout; hymenium even
or papillose; basidia simple, four-spored; the spores rough or echinu-
late, distinctly colored in most species. The plants are saprophytic
on rotten wood, and usually grow on the under-side of logs. Burt
records 30 species from North America (Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 3: 203.
1916) of which several are mentioned from North Carolina. We are
including two species to represent the genus. See also Wakefield,
in Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 5: 476. 1917; Bourdot and Galzin, Bull.
Soc. Myc. Fr. 28: 354. 1912 (as Gleocystidium in part).

Key to the Species Treated

Color deep red-brown; surface very granular H. atroruber (1)

Color rusty brown with margin paler; surface felted H. fuscus (2)

1. Hypochnus atroruber (Pk.) Burt.
Zygodesmus atroruber Pk.

Entirely effused, thin, of a granular appearance, color a deep
red-brown, about argus brown of Ridgway on the surface, the lower
interior and the very thin, indefinite, hypochnoid margin a much
lighter, honey color. Context of loosely interwoven, frequently
branched, clamp-connected hyphae, paler and more delicate in the
lower regions, about 4.5[jl thick, reddish and coarser above, about
6-7.5[jL thick; a few large strands next the substratum 15-1 8[jl thick.

Spores brown under microscope, subspherical, echinulate, 5.5-7 X
6-7.7[x.

Our plants agree with Ellis No. 1390 of his North American Flora
(on cedar) and with other collections on pine bark by Underwood,
etc., at the New York Botanical Garden. They also agree well with
Burt's description (1. c, p. 230). Peck found the type on poplar
and Burt does not mention conifers, but all collections we have seen
were on pine or cedar.
4692. On pine bark, spring of 1920.

166 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

2. Hypochnus fuscus Pers.

Plate 32

Plant entirely resupinate and not removable as a membrane
(Burt says separable), 300-oOOtJL thick, more felted than hypochnoid,
ferruginous-brown (dark cinnamon brown with brighter areas of
Sudan brown) in center to light gray on the indeterminate margin, a
slight vinaceous tint observable throughout or in places. Sections
show such a packing of crystals as to make the structure unintelli-
gible without the application of KOH (which dissolves the crystals);
after such treatment the context is found to be composed of loosely
packed, much septate and much branched hyphae 3.7-7.5[jl thick,
with clamp connections and bladder-like swellings up to IO-S^jl thick.
Hymenium composed of basidia 7.7-25.9[jl, with four curved sterig-
mata and a few pointed structures which arise from the bases of
the basidia. Spores smoky brown, irregularly angled and spiny,
5-7.4 X 7.4-9.3[x.
4267. On very rotten deciduous wood, April 18, 1920.

HYMENOCHAETE

Habit like that of a Corticium or small Stereum, that is, forming
on dead wood an entirely resupinate crust or with the margin free
and projecting like a bracket. Differing from these in the presence
in the hymenium of elongated, smooth, dark, spine-like projections
(setae) which extend beyond the basidia. Peniophora differs in the
colorless cystidia which are usually set w4th warts and crystals, and
which may or may not project beyond the basidia. We include but
three species to represent the genus. For a full treatment, see Burt,
in Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 5: 301. 1918. Also see Massee, in Journ.
Linn. Soc. 27: 95. 1890.

Key to the Species Treated

Hymenial surface not tomentose-felted

Color a deep rich brown; the margin usually free H. Curtisii (1)

Color slate-brown when wet, clay-brown when dry; margin not

free H. corrugata (2)

Hymenial surface tomentose-felted, at least on the margin; usu-
ally rusty or brownish red, the margin paler H. agglutinans (3)

PLATE 19

i 1 \ MKNOCliAETE CURTISII. No. 3830.

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 167

1. Hymenochaete Curtisii (Berk.) Morg.

Stereum Curtisii Berk.

Plates 19 and 32

Extensively resupinate on the underside of oak branches and
twigs, the free shelving margins extending about 4-8 mm. and form-
ing extensive wings on both sides of the branch; dorsal surface of
the caps zoned by ridges and colors, inherently fibrous, but not to-
mentose, rough, exactly the color of the oak bark (deep gray) except
for a pale cinnamon marginal zone. Flesh very thin and cloth-like,
quite pHable, not very strong, cinnamon color; distinctly stratified
under the microscope. Hymenium a deep rich cinnamon brown
(about argus brown of Ridgway) at all ages unless much weather-
worn, then paler; velvety from the close-set, short, curled and looped
hairs among which are scattered longer and stouter, straight, taper-
ing, red spines which project up to 60^. These last are very scattered
and are apt to be missed unless several sections are studied. They are
dark internally and most show a sheath-like hyaline thickening of
the wall, which is most conspicuous below.

Spores (of No. 3830) white, smooth, curved, 1.5-2.8 x 6-8.2[x.

Not rare on post oak limbs, where it extends as a complete cover
over the underside of dead branches for a considerable distance,
often several feet. This habit, with the deep, rich color and narrow
wings, will easily determine it.

3805. On an oak twig, November 29, 1919. Young plants.

3830. On post oak twigs, December 6, 1919. Photo.

3842. On a fallen oak limb, December 7, 1919.

3843. On a fallen post oak branch on campus, December 7, 1919.
3875. On a fallen oak limb, December 11, 1919.

3899. On a branch of white oak, December 14, 1919.

Common on the bark of white and post oaks. Curtis.

2. Hymenochaete corrugata (Fr.) Lev.

Plate 32

Extensively effused and entirely adnate and not removable; sur-
face tuberculate, dull but not pulverulent, much cracked when dry,
color when wet slate-brown with a tint of clay, when dry a lighter
clay-brown except for the abrupt margin which is black on its very
edge; thickness of entire fructification about 225tx, the cystidia
pointed, brown, with a colorless sheath, projecting about 75^1 from the
surface.

168 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Spores white, elliptic, smooth, 3 X 7.3-8.1[x; basidia about 4. Six
thick, projecting (including the 4 sterigmata) about 7.5(x beyond the
surface.

When put in water the hymenium is not wetted, but is finely
silvered by a film of air.

4076. On a corticated branch of a deciduous tree, February 4, 1920.
Common on bark and wood. Curtis (as Corticium).

3. Hymenochaete agglutinans Ellis

Forming circular or elongated patches up to 2 or more cm. across
which fuse on touching and also firmly bind together any two branches
in contact in its course; growing margin thick and definite, pure white,
tomentose, older surface distinctly zoned with brown and brownish
red, covered entirely or in all except the older parts with a thin,
felted whitish or tan or drab or rich brown superficial coat. Sub-
stance firmly leathery, tough, solid, about 500-700[x thick; yellow-
ish, except for the red upper layer which is about 75[i, thick, and which
is at first covered with the looser, felted, tomentose, paler coat in
which are the strong, red, pointed cystidia which project about
37-70[JL above the felt. These are lost as the felt wears away and are
absent in the older, smoother parts. Threads of the context about
2.5-3[ji. thick, much branched. Context very compact and solid,
resembling a real tissue, but bibulous, at least in the surface layer.

No spores or basidia could be found in our collections, and they
are not mentioned by Ellis (Bull. Tor. Bot. Club 5: 46. 1874).

On drying the margin may become elevated in places, pulling up
the upper layer of the bark with it. It does not become truly free as
in H. Curtisii. The species is certainly parasitic, at least after get-
ting started.

4694. On living branch of buckeye, New Hope Swamp, December 4, 1920.

4743. On living branch of hornbeam. University Station, N. C, January 7, 1921.

CORTICIUM

Plants forming an entirely resupinate, encrusting, thin layer
which is usually leathery and fibrous or hard and brittle, in some
cases waxy when damp; hymenium without specialized cells project-
ing or included. Spores smooth, or rarely angled, white, or (when
fresh) pink. When pink the color of the spores fades soon in the
herbarium. Most of the species are saprophytic on wood or bark

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 169

or more rarely on the ground and over mosses, etc., but a few are
parasitic as e. g., C. Stevensii and C. vagum (see below). We are
including C. lilacino-fuscum in Corticium for convenience, as it has
only a very narrow reflexed margin, if any. Burt treats it as a
Stereum. We include only a few of the numerous North Carolina
species. Burt has treated three parasitic species in Ann. Mo. Bot.
Gard. 5: 119. 1918. For important papers on the genus see Massee
in Journ. Linn. Soc. 27: 117. 1890; Wakefield, Trans. Brit. Myc.
Soc. 4: 113. 1913; Bourdot and Galzin, Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr. 27: 223.
1911 (this gives microscopic characters of the French species);
Bresadola, Ann. Myc. 1: 93. 1903; Bresadola, Fungi Tridentini 2:
36 & 57.

Key to the Species Treated

Not parasitic on leaves and twigs of fruit trees.

Color deep blackish indigo blue when damp C. caeruleum (1)

Color creamy gray with a lilac tint C. lilacino-fuscum (2)

Color sordid whitish or cream to pallid yellowish or och-
raceous; surface cracking when dry into easily removable,
rather chalky scales C. scutellare (3)

Color pale flesh both when wet and when dry, cracked when

dry; on deciduous woods C. roseum (4)

Color of mycelium and context deep orange, of hymenium

pale sulphur; growing on grapevines C. Viticola (5)

Color pure white, margin pulverulent or hypochnoid C. arachnoidewn (6)

Color light slate when wet, yellowish gray when dry; tex-
ture wefty and resembling a mold C. vagum (7)

Much like C. vagum in color and texture, but spores smaller

and hyphae with clamp connections C. subcoronatum (8)

Parasitic on apple, pear, or quince and forming a pinkish buff

felt on the lower surface of the leaf and also brown sclerotia

on the twigs C. Stevensii (9)

1. Corticium caeruleum (Schrad.) Fr.

Thelcphora indigo Schw.

Plate 33

Forming small or large patches up to 9 cm. long on twigs and
small branches of deciduous woods with the bark on; closely applied
to the bark, dull, when damp deep blackish indigo blue with more or
less gray tint, when dry blackish gray with often only a faint tint of
blue; the margin whitish, well defined, irregular. When well grown
the surface cracks into many small, unequal areas and has a thickish,

170 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

somewhat tuberculate look. Flesh 180-260[jl thick, a beautiful clear
indigo in thin sections except for the outer part of the hymenium,
which is suddenly colorless.

Spores white, elliptic, smooth, 4.3-5.2 x 8.5-1 l[x. Basidia
6.5-7. 5[JL thick, irregular. The spores sprout very soon in a damp
chamber, the filaments coming usually from one side of the distal
end.

Easily recognized by the color and finely cracked surface. Mas-
see's colored figure (PI. 33, fig. 3) does not represent well the color
of our plant, but there seems to be no doubt of its identity. Plants
in the Curtis Herbarium from South Carolina, Alabama and England
are the same. The miscroscopic characters as given by Bourdot and
Galzin also agree.

3997. On California privet by President's house, January 21, 1920.
4018. On standing branches of privet and crepe myrtle, January 24, 1920.
4722. On privet in President's yard, December 10, 1920.
Common on wood and bark. Curtis.

2. Corticium lilacino-fuscum B. & C.
Stereum roseo-carneum (Schw.) Fr.

Plate 33

Extensively effused; margin definite, not fimbriate; not remov-
able. When wet membranous and soft, pale creamy gray with dis-
tinct tint of lilac; when dry shghtly duller and cracking through
the hymenium into numerous, rather small areas, showing the whiter
context beneath, not tuberculate except over the inequalities of
the bark. Entire thickness about ISS^l; the context composed of
rather loosely woven, clear threads, 2.4-3. 5[j. thick, with clamp con-
nections and many crystals. In the hymenium are numerous slender
paraphyses with short branches near their ends. Unfortunately our
figure shows only one and that not branched. Basidia 6.3-7.5^
thick; up to 30[x long, 4-spored.

Spores white or pale cream, smooth, elliptic, 3.8-5.5 X 7-9.3iJi,
easily collapsing.

Our plants agree with plants so named from Ellis (N. Am. Fungi,
No. 515), and with Burt's description and figure of Stereum roseo-
carneum. In treating this as a Stereum, Burt is no doubt right,
but for convenience we retain it for the present in Corticium.
4071. On bark and wood of an oak limb, February 4, 1920.

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 171

3. Corticium scutellare B. & C.

Plate 34

Extensively effused on corticated or decorticated wood, cracked
into innumerable small areas, inseparable as a whole, but when dry
the upper, rather friable and chalky part is easily removed from a thin
white layer covering the wood; color varying from sordid white
through cream or clay to pallid yellowish or ochraceous; obscurely
nodulose; margin fading quickly out to a thin granular-looking edge,
not byssoid. Entire plant about 148-260[jl thick; hymenium about
65-7-5[jL, no cystidia. Clearing with potash shows a dark, dense
layer of about the same or greater thickness beneath the hymenium,
and a thinner, more delicate, pale layer next the wood; hyphae
delicate, 2.5-3.5ijl thick.

Spores long-elliptic, 4 x 7.5-9.3[x. Basidia slender, long-clavate,
about 7.4[x thick, with four long sterigmata.

This matches well with a collection from Bresadola so named
at the New York Botanical Garden, and agrees well with the original
description (Grevillea 2: 4. 1873).

4043. On a very rotten but partly corticated branch of Aesculus octandra, Janu-
ary 21, 1920.

4223. On bark of oak wood, March 27, 1920. Spores subelliptic, 4.4-5.1 X 9.3-
10m.

4696. On bark of Hmb from a deciduous tree (birch or cherry), December 4, 1920.
Spores (print) subelliptic, some slightly curved at mucro end, hyaline,
3.7-4.5 X 7-9m.
Common on bark of limbs. Curtis.

4. Corticium roseum Pers.

Plate 33

Plant effused, arising as small patches which fuse on meeting
without leaving a trace of the line of junction; margin definite and
at times a little uplifted, furnished with a very narrow white fringe
of fine fibers when growing; surface smooth, dull with the appear-
ance of fine felt, pale flesh color both when wet and dry, cracked
when dry, the cracks reaching nearly to the substratum, but usually
showing at the bottom the white fibers of the subiculum; 140-280^1
thick; threads of context not densely packed, 2.8-3.8[x thick, with
clamp connections. Hymenium dense, about 50[i thick, composed,
in addition to the basidia, of crowded, much-branched, more or less
contorted threads, the tips of which extend above the general sur-
face and help to give the pruinose appearance.

172 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Basidia 4-spored, long club-shaped, about 1 .b\j. thick and project-
ing about 40-50(x; sterile cells of much the same appearance are
scattered among them and may be young basidia. Spores (of No.
4703) clear salmon, smooth, elHptic, 5.5-7.5 x 9.3-13ix, granular,
sprouting over night in a damp chamber.

Our plants agree perfectly with a collection of C. roseum from
Bresadola at the New York Botanical Garden and with collections
so named at Washington. Dr. Burt has seen our No. 3981 and de-
termined it as C. roseum.

3981. On decaying hickory tree, Januarj^ 18, 1920. Hyphae delicate, clamp-
connected, 3-4m thick. Spores smooth, subelliptic, 4.5-6 X 10-15m.
4703. On bark and wood of branches of Salix sericea, Glen Burnie Farm, Decem-
ber 5, 1920.

5. Corticium Viticola (Schw.) Fr.

Plate 33

Plants appearing as small, irregular patches with deep orange-
red centers and paler byssoid margins which extend and fuse to form
elongated crusts up to 2 or more cm. long and 1 cm. wide. Hymen-
ium forming irregularly and at times in scattered patches, again
continuous, pale sulphur yellow, with the appearance of fine leather,
about 45-50[jL thick; the substance below about 185-250[x thick and
composed of very loosely woven, rather even threads about 3-4^1.
thick, without clamp connections, which are usually a deeper, more
orange color.

Spores white, smooth, elliptic, with one side flatfish, 5-5.5 X
8.5-9.4tx

Among the layers of the bark run deep orange rhizomorphic
strands with byssoid fringes which connect with the superficial part.
4693. On dead bark of a live grapevine, New Hope Swamp, December 4, 1920.
Middle and upper districts on bark of grapevines. Curtis.

6. Corticium arachnoideum Berk.

Plates 17 and 33

Effused irregularly over area of several centimeters, closely ad-
herent, color pure white; margin indistinct and pulverulent or hypoch-
noid, in center thicker and smooth, and in most places minutely
powdery, having the appearance of a thin white-wash. In section
about 111^ thick; context made up of very loosely packed, clamp-

19S1] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 173

connected, incrusted (so as to look very rough-walled) hyphae, 4.2jx.
thick; hymenium about 18[j. thick, made up entirely of young and
old basidia, which are clavate, 4:.8[l thick, with four minute sterig-
mata; no cystidia, but at base of the hymenium is a layer of crys-
tals which KOH does not dissolve entirely.

Spores white, short-elliptic, hyaline, 2.5-3.5 X 3.8-5[jl.

When compared with specimens of C. arachnoideum from New
Jersey (Ellis and Everhart, Fungi Columbiana No. 309) at New York
Botanical Garden, our plants agreed exactly and Dr. Burt has kindly
confirmed the determination.

4235a. On very rotten, decaying, deciduous wood, March 25, 1920.
Common on wood and bark. Curtis.

7. Corticium vagum B. &. C.

Corticium hotryosum Bres. Ann. Myc. 1: 99. 1903.

Plate 33

Entirely resupinate, pulverulent-looking, margin indeterminate;
easily separable from the substratum when wet, and with an open
wefty structure that resembles a mold; color when wet, hght slate,
drying to a yellowish gray. Structure in section about 240ex thick,
consisting of very loosely packed, very large (7.4[x thick,) consider-
ably branched, frequently septate hyphae without clamp connections
which are yellowish towards the substratum.

Spores subeUiptic (flat on one side, curved on the other), pointed
at each end, 3.8-5.5 x 7.5-1 l[x. Basidia simple, very pecuhar,
hardly distinguishable from the hyphae and not forming a distinct
hymenial layer, 7.4-9 X 18-25[jl, with two, four or six curved sterig-
mata. No cystidia.

The small group of Corticiums to which this species belongs is
pecuhar in the undifferentiated condition of the fruiting surface.
There can scarcely be said to be a hymenium any more than in a
mold. The plant is at times parasitic, again saprophytic. Burt
(1. c.) has studied it along with two other related species and his
description agrees substantially with ours. Hypochmts Solani,
Corticium Solani and Rhizoctonia Solani are the same as this. Our
plant also agrees in all important particulars with Bresadola's de-
scription of his species and with the more detailed description by Miss
Wakefield (Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 4: 117. 1913).

174 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

4230. On bark of a dead poplar limb, April 4, 1920.

4236. On inside of decaying poplar log, April 15, 1920. Spores pointed, sub-
elliptic, 3.7-4.5 X 8.5-11. 5m.
4259. On bark and wood of dead pine, April 15, 1920.
4276. On dead pine wood, April 20, 1920.

8. Corticium subcoronatum v. Hoehn. and Litsch.

Adnate, thin, pulverulent-looking, so loosely woven as to be
lacunate under a hand lens, when wet slate colored, drying to whitish
gray; margin indeterminate. Structure in section after application
of KOH about QO^x thick, made up of extremely loosely packed, much
branched, clamp-connected, hyaline hyphae 5.5-7.4^ thick; no de-
finite hymenial layer present but basidia are borne on the tips of
much branched hyphae at outer surface and the large number of
collapsed basidia give the appearance of a layer of crystals; basidia
6.6-7.4 X 12.5[i,, with four sterigmata and not distinguishable from
hyphae except for the presence of sterigmata.

Microscopic appearance like C. botryosum, but differing in sec-
tion in that the present plant has more delicate hyphae which are
not yellowish at base as in C. botryosum, and has clamp connections
at septae and smaller spores than the latter. See Wakefield in
Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 4: 118. 1913.
4271. On bark of very rotten oak log, near Meeting of the Waters, April 18, 1920.

9. Corticium Stevensii Burt.

While we have not found this in Chapel Hill, its frequent presence
in the mountain region of this state and its importance as a parasite
of apples, pears, and quinces leads us to include it here. We adapt
the following condensed description from Stevens and Hall (Ann.
Myc. 7: 49. 1909, as Hypochfius ochroleucus) and from Burt ( 1. c,
p. 125) :

Fructification forming a felty, dull pinkish buff, easily i-emovable
membrane on the under side of the leaf; hyphae 4.5-7.5[x thick, not
nodose septate, bearing the basidia scattered along them on short
lateral branches; basidia 7-8 x \\^, with 4 sterigmata; spores
hyahne, flattened or slightly concave on one side, 3-4 x 8-11^.

The vegetative mycelium lives on the twigs and forms there
chestnut-brown Sclerotia from which rhizomorphic strands run to
the leaves and are dissipated into the fructifying hyphae.

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 175

Stevens and Hall report the fungus from numerous places in west-
ern North Carolina where it does much damage to neglected orchards.
The species is evidently related to C. vagum, and a true hymenium
is absent.

STEREUM

Plants growing on wood in all species here treated; thin, flat,
tough and leathery, or more woody and rigid; petal- or bracket-
shaped; in our species usually growing horizontally with a broad
attachment directly from the wood or from a more or less extensive
resupinate portion; dorsal surface often velvety or hairy, concen-
trically zoned and radiately strigose or rugose; hymenium quite
smooth and not furnished with sterile spines (setae) projecting among
the basidia, but cystidia or paraphyses may be present; basidia simple,
spores smooth in our species, nearly white to pale smoky flesh color
in a good print. Some species exude a colored juice from the wounded
hymenium when in a growing condition. Burt has recently pub-
lished his monograph on the American species in Ann. Mo. Bot.
Gard. 7: 81. 1920. He records twenty species from North Carolina
(including *S. fuscum), two of which we are treating under Peniophora
and Corticium. Two of these North Carolina species grow on the
ground, both reported from the mountains. See also Massee, Journ.
Linn. Soc. 27: 158. 1890. I am under obhgation to Dr. Burt for
having determined a number of my plants. For interesting remarks
on *S. abietinum Pers. see N. Y. Sta. Mus. Bull. 219, 220, p. 54, con-
taining Report of Director for 1918. 1920.

Key to the Species Treated

Plant forming small tuberculate bodies like crowded molar

teeth; hymenium with many warted cystidia S. frustulostwi (4)

Not as above.

Hymenium becoming reddish when bruised.

Growing on frondose wood; surface tawny S. gausapahim (1)

Growing on frondose wood; surface blackish with rusty

margin; texture hard and woody when dry S. subpileaium (3)

Growing on pine; surface pallid S. sanguinolentum (2)

Hymenium turning dark brown when bruised S. fuscum (10)

Hymenium not becoming red or brown when bruised (S.
subpileatu7n and S. fuscum, in which the hymenium
changes color when bruised are included below, as this
character is obscure except when quite fresh.)

176 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Dorsal surface grayish, zoned, coarsely hairy S. fasciatum (5)

Dorsal surface grayish, zoned, tomentose; plant small,

growing on cedar S. rameale a form (7a)

Dorsal surface in large part smooth and shining; chest-
nut or lighter reddish-brown, tomentose at base and
at times on some of the zones aS. rameale (7)

Dorsal surface satiny-tomentose, with zones of tan, cin-
namon, reddish-brown, etc S. lobatum (6)

Dorsal surface smooth, silky-shining, pale tan to whit-
ish. S- sericeum (8)

Dorsal surface white when dry and densely woolly hairy
all over; hymenium golden yellow when dry; plant
small S. ochraceoflavum (9)

Dorsal surface dull brown, subtomentose on the whitish

margin; flesh spongy S. fuscxim (10)

Dorsal surface smoothish or more or less scurfy-tomen-
tose, particularly towards the margin; deep purplish
brown or blackish, margin tawny when growing S. subpileatum (3)

1. Stereum gausapatum Fr.

S. spadiceum Fr.

Plates 20 and 35

Plant laterally sessile forming a complicated mass of branched,
wavy, imbricated, horizontal caps which project a distance of about
1.5-5 cm.; a compound group at times extending laterally up to
8-9 cm. Dorsal surface zoned frequently with ridges and prolifera-
tions, densely matted tomentose all over; color when damp dull
tawny with brownish zones, the margin reddish brown (where the
reddish flesh shows through the thinner tomentum), when dry all
parts are a clearer tawny or buffy tawny except for a narrow reddish
margin. Hymenium wavy and undulating to form radial ridges,
when damp dull dark brown with a tint of bay, the marginal part
for about a cm. being reddish ochraceous; all parts of the hymenium
turn instantly dull red when bruised and emit a little reddish latex.
When dry the hymenium becomes a somewhat lighter dull smoky
buff or tan with a faint fleshy tint. Flesh when wet very tough and
pliable, about 0.5 mm. thick, deep reddish brown, the hymenium
about 0.4 mm. thick (unusually thick for a Stereum) and the tomen-
tose coat about 0.6-1.4 mm. thick; tasteless and odorless. When
dry the caps are rigid and rather brittle.

Spores (of No. 4110) pale creamy flesh, smooth, elliptic, 2.5-3.7 x
6-8.5[x.

PLATE 20

STEREUM GAUSAPATUM. No. 3821.

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 177

Not rare on rotting oak stumps and logs. The species is easily-
recognized by its good size, complicated structm'e, tawny and tomen-
tose surface and dark hymenium which turns red at once when
bruised. It differs from S. sanguinolentum in tawny color and growth
on oak. The latter is pallid and grows on pine.
334. On the base of a rotten oak stump, October 4, 1908.

3821. On oak log at "Long Bridge," December 5, 1919. Spores 3-3.8 X 6-8.2^.
3912. On dead oak log by Battle's Branch, November 5, 1919.
4110. Oak limb by Battle's Branch, February 13, 1920.

Common on trunks and stumps. Curtis

Blowing Rock. Atkinson.

South CaroUna, Hartsville. Coker.

2. Stereum sanguinolentum (A. &. B.) Fr.

Plate 35

Largely resupinate, the upper margin reflexed and bracket-like,
in our plants extending only about 4-5 mm.; surface of the free caps
inherently fibrous, radiately striate, zoned lengthwise by thin brown
lines, the remainder nearly white or brown, the thin margin white;
flesh leathery, tough, elastic, thin. Hymenium more or less wrinkled
and ridged, when young whitish (very pale fawn) sooner darker
through light fawn to dusky fawn; when bruised in the fresh state
immediately exuding a deep red juice which stains the surface, later
the stained parts becoming dark dusky brown with only a tint of red.

Spores (of No. 3967) white, sausage-shaped, 2-3 x 6-8.5[jl.

Easily distinguished from others that turn red by growth on pine
and different color. Our plants form patches about 1.5-2 x 1.5-4
cm., some with and some without the narrow reflexed margin. If
soaked again after drying the hymenium turns red almost all over
and on drying again darkens to a very deep brown, the margin only
remaining white.
3967. On a pine log, January 17, 1920. Photo.

Low and middle districts on pine trunks. Curtis.

3. Stereum subpileatum B. &. C.

Plates 21 and 35
Plants bracketed from a resupinate layer, extending about 1.5-5
cm. or more, often anastomosing and contorted; dorsal surface vel-
vety-scurfy when young and more or less persistently so, the older

178 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

part often quite smooth; multizonate, the more conspicuous zones
with obscure ones between; usually crimped and waved to form
radiating ridges like an oyster or pecten shell ; color on younger grow-
ing margin buff -tawny, then dull tawny-brown or at times abruptly
blackish-brown, with dull purple zones and often deep gray zones
near the margin. Flesh about 0.5-0.8 mm. thick, very hard and
woody, not at all pliable when dry, composed of four distinct layers,
the lower, just under the pale hymenium, thickest, ochraceous buff
color, with vertical fibers and distinctly stratified in old plants (this rep-
resenting the different layers of old hymenium) ; the next layer thinner
(unless plant is young) and lighter with horizontal fibers; the next
thinner still and black or nearly so and hard and shining like rosin;
the upper brownish and densely spongy; threads of flesh densely
packed, 3-4[x thick, without clamp connections. Hymenium smooth,
pale creamy flesh color, cracking in age, often wrinkled and nodu-
lated and obscurely zoned, becoming dull brownish red when bruised
in the fresh state.

Spores (of No. 3828) smooth, white, oval, 2.5-3.7 X 3.8-5.5[x.
Cystidia numerous, encrusted, blunt, about 5.2-7.5[i, thick, pro-
jecting about 7.5-1 1[JL — a few bottle-brush paraphyses were seen in
our preparations.

The caps are perennial, the new growth arising from the lower
layer of flesh only, and forming a new hymenium over the old one.
Old plants may be practically black and the old hymenium may
become straw color or dull creamy yellow with discolorations due to
black or green molds. It is not often that one finds plants in so
fresh a condition as to show the change to reddish in the hymenium,
but the plant is easily determined by its other characters. Rare
at Chapel Hill; apparently more common in the Coastal Plain. Our
plant is just like S. suhpileatum B. & C, as represented by No. 219
in the Ravenel Exsiccati. Stereum sepium is very near, but is
separated by Burt on account of the abundance of bottle-brush
paraphyses. Stereum insigne also differs in having many such para-
physes and in the absence of cystidia. Stereum rugosum has been
considered in a different section on account of the red juice in its
hymenium, but in our collections of S. suhpileatum the hymenium
also turns red when bruised, a fact which has not been mentioned by
others. There is, however, no obvious juice in the latter.
2837. On an oak log, September 23, 1917.
3828. On the same log as No. 2837, December 6, 1919.

PLATE 21

"i-as-i * jIT' \\

f ./'

""ijk

4^

>t

■J*'

STEREUM SUBPILEATUM. Nos. 1522 and 2837 [above].

STEREUM FUSCUM. No. 689 [center].

STEREUM RAMEALE. Nos. 3813 and 3825 [below].

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 179

3955. On a standing dead white oak, January 17, 1920.
Common on log.s and stump.s. Curtis.
Blowing Rock. Atkinson.
South Carolina. Hartsville (No. 1522.) Coker.

4. Stereum frustulosum (Pers.) Fr.

Plates 18 and 35

Plant forming small flat, tuberculate, usually crowded bodies
which are somewhat expanded at the top. The upper, spore-bearing
surface is usually grooved and uneven hke a molar tooth, is brownish-
gray in color and nearly glabrous. The sides are blackish brown
and rugosely zoned. Flesh brown, very hard and woody, about
1.5-3 mm. thick, zoned, each zone representing a renewed growth
added over the hymenium of the preceding growing season as in
Fomes.

Spores white, smooth, oval, 2.5-3.5 X 4-5.1[jl. Basidia club-
shaped, 5.5-7[x thick, with four very long sterigmata. Cystidia
numerous, club-shaped, covered over the distal half with close-set
short spines like a giant's club. These spines are not so long in our
preparations as in figures by Burt (1. c, p. 227). (See also Lloyd,
Letter 51, fig. 565; and Myc. Notes No. 49, p. 696, fig. 1041. 1917.)
These peculiar cystidia, together with the perennial habit, indicates
a relationship with S. suhpileatum which is, I think, related to S.
rugosum.

The plant is common on decorticated, but still sound and hard
oak stumps and logs. Plants in cavities and unexposed to weather
may be buffy brown in color, and some of these at least are sterile.
As they grow older the plants expand slowly above and if on ver-
tical wood may become shghtly shelving above, in such case looking
very like a miniature Fomes.

332. On hard dead wood of white oak, October 4, 1908.

389. On hard dead oak trunk, October 20, 1911.

1042. On stump of Liriodendron tulipifera, December 6, 1913. Photo.
3814. On oak stump, December 3, 1919.

4127. On oak stump, February 15, 1920. Plants up to 3 mm. thick, with as many
as ten layers.

Low and middle districts on wood and stumps. Curtis.
Blowing Rock. Atkinson.

180 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

5. Stereum fasciatum (Schw.) Fr.

Plate 22

Plants very thin, tough and phable when fresh, rather brittle
when dry, sessile, and attached by a narrowed base, often imbri-
cated, individuals reaching a width of about 8 cm., the upper surface
covered densely with a rather harsh, fibrous tomentum; color light
creamy gray or grayish tan, with distinct, rather closely set zones.
After maturity the upper surface soon becomes green from the growth
there of the alga Pleurococcus. Hymenium smooth, faintly zoned
and of a hght fleshy-cream color. Spores (of No. 3815) smooth,
elliptic, 2.1-2.9 x 5.1-6.5[jl, just like those of S. lohatum.

The plant is very common on logs and stumps and may occur
in such abundance as almost to cover a large log. It is not rarely
intermixed with Coriolus versicolor. The caps are only about a quar-
ter to a half mm. thick. The plant is easily recognized by the strigose-
hairy cap, hght hymenium and comparatively large size. It is often
referred in American herbaria to *S. hirsutum.

938. On an old rotting log by Fern Walk, September 14, 1913.
3815. On dead, deciduous twigs and bark, December 3, 1919.
3820. On rotting oak, December 5, 1919.

Common on trunks and limbs. Curtis.

6. Stereum lobatum Kunze.

Plates 22 and 35

Plants about 1.3-5 cm. broad, sessile and attached by a narrowed
base, petal-shaped and often fused laterally, surface conspicuously
zonate with varying shades of light tan, cream, deep reddish brown,
cinnamon, etc. Most of the surface is covered with a thick, close
interwoven tomentum of satiny texture, but narrow zones on or
near the margin may be free from it. Texture pliable when fresh,
less pliable and rather brittle when dry, very thin. Hymenium
smooth, faintly zoned; color a light fleshy salmon or fleshy tan.

Spores (of No. 3816) smooth, white, elliptic, 2.2-3 X 5-6. 5[x,
like those of S. fasciatum.

This species is about as common as S. fasciatum which it resembles
closely in shape, colors and texture. It averages smaller than that
species and may be distinguished best by the interw^oven, feltish

PLATE 22

STEREUM LOBATUM. No. 3816 [top].
STEREUM FASCIATUM. No. 3815 [center and below]

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 181

surface layer, which is not strigose hairy. Stereum versicolor Swartz,
to which authors have referred this species, was collected in Jamaica
and has a smooth surface (Lloyd, Myc. Notes 33: 429. 1909). My
plants have been seen by Burt, who determines them as above.

33] . On dead wood, September 25, 1908.
3816. On dead deciduous twigs and bark, December 3, 1919.

Common on trunks and limbs. Curtis.

Hartsville, South Carolina. Coker.

7. Stereum rameale Schw.
S. compUcatum Fr.

Plates 21, 23 and 35

Caps small, shelving from a more or less resupinate base, petal-
shaped or shell-shaped, often fused laterally, usually projecting 3-17
mm.; surface zoned, smooth and silky-shining except near the base
where it is covered with white, gray or tawny fibers, or the hairs
may occur on some of the zones more than half-way to the margin,
or very rarely all over; color when quite fresh and damp a light och-
raceous on margin, passing through ochraceous to reddish ochraceous
at base, when dry a deep chestnut brown with paler zones, or when
old. and weathered the color may fade to much lighter. Hymenium
smooth, strong, uniform ochraceous when fresh and damp, changing
to a creamy flesh color when dry. When on horizontal branches the
under side of the branch may be completely covered by the resupinate
part, which gives rise on the sides to a long fringe of the projecting
caps. On drying the plant contracts so much that the resupinate
portion is often split and torn.

Spores (of No. 3863) faint smoky flesh-color in a good print,
smooth, rod-elliptic, 2-2.8 X 5-7^1. Hymenium (of No. 3802) about
35[JL thick.

When damp the hymenium also is faintly zoned but when dry
it is not zoned. The dorsal surface is on the contrary more con-
spicuously zoned in the dry state. A very pretty little plant which
often occurs on small twigs and wings them on both sides if they
are horizontal, also appearing in large numbers on larger branches.

333. On a dead oak branch, January 14, 1909.

362. On branches and small twigs, October 11, 1911. Tawny tomentose all over.

3813. On a dead oak limb, December 3, 1919. Spores 2-2.8 X 5-7.2m.

3825. On deciduous twigs, December 3, 1919. Hymenium strong orange salmon.

4106. On an oak twig, February 13, 1920.

182 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

4174. On a corticated oak branch, February 23, 1920. Color of damp hymenium
about gold; grayish flesh when dry.
Also man}- other collections on oak, sumac, ironwood, privet and peach.
Blowing Rock. Atkinson.
Common on dead limbs (as S. complicatum). Curtis.

7a. Stereum rameale. Form on cedar.

We have in Chapel Hill a form on Juniperous poles which differs
from the typical in the much grayer and more tomentose surface
in the smoky hymenium, and in never reaching the larger sizes often
found in the latter. These differences remain constant from year to
year, but as the spores and other microscopic , characters are the
same, I agree with Dr. Burt, who has seen my plants, that it is best
to refer them to S. rameale. A description follows:

Shape and size as in smaller examples of the typical form, mostly
petal-shaped and attached by a constricted base, projecting about
4-8 mm., at times largely resupinate, often in rows; dorsal surface
light brown when damp with narrow zones of blackish brown, the
margin white or black; scurfy tomentose nearly all over (a few nar-
row glabrous zones are present at times); radially channelled; when
dry pale gray with narrow blackish zones and an obscure cinnamon
tint towards the margin. Hymenium uneven, smoky brown to
smoky buff when damp, when dry smoky gray, the marginal part
darker.

Spores exactly like those of *S. rameale, smoky flesh color, 1.8-
2.8 X 5-6.6[x.

Stereum radiatum Pk. which also grows on conifers (hemlock and
spruce) in the northern states is very different.
4026. On cedar poles with bark on, January 24, 1920.
4318. Same spot as No. 4026, June 20, 1920.

8. Stereum sericeum (Schw.) Sacc.

Plate 35

Plant arising from a little tubercle and, if beneath a branch,
largely resupinate by fusions, reaching a length of 6 or 7 cm., the
free and shelving margins not continuous but discrete and forming
separate petal-like brackets which vary from very small up to 2 cm.
broad and extending 1.5 cm.; often not resupinate and attached
directly to the wood by a point. Dorsal surface smooth, silky-

PLATE 23

STKREUM RAMEALE. No. 4106.

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 183

shining, pale straw or whitish gray, radially striate, transversely
zoned by narrow lines of brown. Hymenium pale fleshy-straw color
to whitish, faintly ridged radially. Flesh very thin, hardly a fifth
of a cm. thick, when damp very soft and pliable like softest leather,
when dry subrigid and elastic.

Spores (of No. 3962, Hartsville, S. C.) pale flesh color in a good
print, rod-elhptic, 2.2-3.4 x 7-10[i, a few up to ll^i..

The plants arise from points and if resupinate spread out and
fuse when touching, forming a faint line on the hymenium to show the
line of union just as in Eichleriella Leveilliana. The point of origin
is indicated by a small central nipple in the center of each component
part. The species is easily distinguished by the quite smooth, silky,
pale caps, small size, and thin, papery structure. In age the plants
often become split radially into narrow frayed strips. Rather com-
mon.

1043. On dead branch of Carpinus, December 6, 1913.
4040. On blackgum twig in Arboretum, January 26, 1920.

Hartsville, South Carolina. Several collections on black gum (Nyssa),
December, 1919. Coker.

9. Stereiim ochraceoflavum (Schw.) Curtis

Plate 35

Plants typically cup-shaped or elongated cup-shaped, if hanging
then attached by a broad base or if on small twigs by an elongated
line; if on upright branches then broadly attached by a resupinate
side of the cup, size varying from quite small up to about 1.5 cm.
broad, or several may be fused to make a length up to 3 cm. Dorsal
surface densely woolly-hairy all over, when damp dull white with
narrow straw-colored zones towards margin and deeper reddish och-
raceous zones near the base, when dry white all over (due to the
colored flesh not showing through the white hairs). Hymenium
somewhat uneven, of a beautiful golden-yellow color when dry, a
more ochraceous yellow when wet; not changing when cut; after
some exposure the color may fade to a paler buff. Texture tough
and very pliable, like soft leather when wet, sub-rigid when dry;
flesh about the color of the hymenium, both together hardly a half
mm. thick.

Spores (of No. 4033) white, elHptic, smooth, 2-3 x 5.5-7 A\i.

A striking and unique plant, easily recognized by the small size,
golden-yellow hymenium and woolly-white cap. This is certainly

184 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

S. ochraceoflavum. I have compared a good collection of that spe-
cies from the Schweinitz Herbarium and another from Schweinitz
in the Curtis Herbarium, and find them identical. It is also like
plants under this name in the Curtis Herbarium from Massachusetts,
New York and Mississippi. The same thing from Alabama, South
Carolina and Cuba in the Curtis Herbarium was labelled S. hir-
sutum. Specimens of the latter from Europe are quite different.
Our plant is also like S. ochraceoflavum as represented in the Kew
Herbarium, where I sent some of my plants for comparison. Stereum
sulphuratum B. & Rav. (Journ. Linn. Soc. 10: 331. 1868) seems very
near. From the description the species would hardly be connected,
but the type of S. sulphuratum in the Curtis Herbarium from Cuba,
as well as a collection from Georgia, can scarcely be distinguished from
our plants with a hand lens. Burt finds the microscopic characters
of the two species to differ in several respects.
2941. On dead twig of Rhus copalina, October 8, 1917.
4033. On twigs of a deciduous wood, January 25, 1920.
4738. On a dead vine of Vitis, December 16, 1920.

Common on limbs. Curtis.

Hartsville, S. C. On twigs of various deciduous woods as black gum,
Ilex glabra, etc., December 25-26, 1919. Coker.

10. Stereum fuscum Schrad.

S. hicolor Pers.

Plate 21

Caps from 1-2.5 cm. wide, much fused and folded and rising
from a common resupinate stratum; surface grayish snuff color, the
margin abruptly pallid; tomentose when young, the tomentum col-
lapsing on exposure to weather, the growing margin remaining tomen-
tose; obscurely marked with structural zones, especially near the
margin, where there may appear an interrupted blackish zone. Flesh
about 1 mm. thick, color of surface, fibrous and rather spongy. Hy-
menium thin, about 55-65[j, thick, white when young, then approach-
ing the cap color, becoming dark brown when bruised in the growing
state; texture much more firm and brittle than the flesh; furnished
with thick, refractive, embedded gleocystidia; cystidia also present,
encrusted, blunt or pointed, 3.5-4jx thick, projecting about 9-22[jl.

Spores oval, smooth, 2.3-2.5 x 3.5-4[j,.

Burt makes an error in not crediting this from North Carolina,
putting Salem, under South Carolina.

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 185

689. On dead sweetgum, December 3, 1912. Photo.

Blowing Rock. On rotting wood. Atkinson.
Common, on logs and limbs. Curtis.

THELEPHORA

Plants tough, leathery, fan-shaped, or funnel-shaped, or much
branched; hymenium smooth or somewhat wrinkled, covering only
the interior (or outer) surface in most species, but clothing all but
the stalk in a few branched forms; basidia simple; spores colored,
rough or spiny. A few branched kinds as T. palmata and T. antho-
cephala have the form of Clavarias but are distinguished from these
by the tough, leathery texture and very dark spores. Lachnocladium
forms of Clavaria approach these in texture, but have light spores.
(See Burt, Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1: 199. 1914, for a full treatment of
the genus in North America.)

Key to the North Carolina Species *

Plants stalked and upright, growing on the ground

Branched like a tree or shrub and rather stout, 3-6.5 cm.
high.

Odor very strong and foetid T. pahnata (1)

Odor none T. multipartita (2)

Branched like a tree or shrub, slender, 1.5-2.7 cm. high T. caespitulans*

Simple, small, flattened and broadened upward T. regularis (4)

Simple, or lobed, expanded above into more or less com-
plete shallow, thin and pliable cups. In pine or cedar
woods or open fields.
Cap not zoned, fibrous-squamulose, margin fimbriate. . .T. terrestris (5)
Cap zoned, inherently squamulose, margin even at ma-
turity T. intyhacea (6)

Cap zoned, silky fibrous, margin fimbriate T. griseozonata (7)

Expanding above into a complicated mass of concen-
tric plates, lobes or tubercles, thick and firm T. vialis (3)

Plants laterally sessile, bracketed, growing on wood or up
from the ground onto bases of stems. Sometimes cen-
trally stalked and expanded into a cup above when grow-
ing upright.

* Thelephora caespitulans has not been found in North Carolina, but should be looked for
as it occurs both north and south of us. We take the following from Burt (1. c. 1 : 204.
1914): "Fructification erect, coriaceous, dusky drab to oUve-brown below, paler above,
very much branched, forming clusters 2}4 cm. high by 2}/^ cm. broad; pileus with numerous
divisions joined together into a solid base but assurgent above and pressed together closely
compressed, subcanaliculate, frequently obtuse and whitish at the apex; hymenium amplii-
genous: spores umbrinous imder the microscope, sparingly tuberculate, 7-8 X 5-6M. On the
grovmd in mixed woods, Vermont to South Carolina, and in dense coniferous woods, Wash-
ington. September. Rare. Tliis species is related to T. palmata but is more olivaceous,
and it is probably inodorous, — at least no odor has been noted."

186 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Blackish when fresh, with white margin when dry, brownish

above with a gray-tlrab hymenium T. cuticularis (8) -

Dull cinnamon or chestnut, margin paler when growing,

soft and spongy T. albido-brunnca (9)

Yellowish, hard when dry T. lutosa (10)

Plants incrusting and ascending small plants or twigs from the

ground T. fimbriata (11)

1. Thelephora palmata (Scop.) Fr.

This species, which is sharply marked by its upright branched
habit, dark color and very foetid odor, has not yet been found in
Chapel Hill, and in the following description of the fresh plant I
have made use of notes by Miss M. McKenney, of Olympia, Wash-
ington. The species is northern in its range and descends to our
state only in the mountains, so far as known with certainty. Cm-tis
reports it as common in woods in this state, but he may have had
some other plant in mind.

Gregarious or tufted, 3-6 cm. high, 2.5-4 cm. broad, trunk thin,
flattened, black. Branches numerous, flattened, black; these branch
again into slender branchlets which are round, flexible, tough, simple
or occasionally flattened, divided, narrowing at the tip, which is
white or gray. Odor most disagreeable, something like decayed
cabbage combined with iodoform. Spores (of a plant from Olym-
pia, Wash.) blackish brown, irregularly warted or spiny, 7.4-9.3 x
8-11. l[x.

In the dried state the plants are deep brown on the surface, the
central flesh remaining black. They are rather brittle with nearly
as much the appearance of a Clavaria as of a Thelephora, entirely
smooth with a surface of velvet-like appearance all over. Odor
retained, taste similar, bad, a good deal like that of Hijgrophorus
Peckii. Burt gives the color of fresh plants as fuscous purple. The
plant is found under conifers or in grassy fields.

Asheville. Beardslee.

Common on earth in woods. Curtis.

2. Thelephora multipartita (Schw.) Fr.*

Plates 24 and 35
Plants about 2.5-3.5 cm. high, and 1.5-2.5 cm. broad above,
distinctly stalked and dividing above into rather narrow, flattened

* Thelephora anthoccphala (Bull.) Fr. is reported from North Carolina by Biirt (from
Beardslee) and by Curtis. We have not found a plajit that we can separate from T. multi-
partita as this, and as we cannot work out any difference from descriptions that will make
a clear distinction between the two species we refrain from copying a description (see Burt,
. c, p., 203).

PLATE 24

THELEPHORA MULTIPARTITA. No. 346§.

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 187

and channelled branches with white or whitish, finely tomentose,
sterile tips; hymenium deep brown when fresh and moist, about
warm sepia of Ridgway, in drying becoming lighter, between fawn
and wood-brown of Ridgway. Stem rough, irregular, usually more
or less flattened, surface felt-like. Texture tough, pliable; tasteless
and odorless.

Spores (of No. 2590) deep smoky sepia, a large mucro, irregu-
larly set with blunt spines, 5.5-7.4 x 7.4-9. 3[jl.

The tomentose tips, densely spinulose spores and particularly
the lack of odor separate this from T. palmata. Dr. Burt has seen
our plants and refers them as above. The stem is said to be villose,
but this is not the case in our plants and ours are at times much
larger than the maximum dimensions given by Burt.

2590. On earth, upland rocky woods (mixed oak and pine), Battle's Park, July 5,
1917. Photo.

2641. Low, damp woods by Meeting of the Waters branch, July 11, 1917.

2695. Low, damp woods by Creek at Upper Laurel Hill, July 17, 1917.

3468. In rich humus near base of oak near Meeting of the Waters, August 16,
1919. Photo. Deep brown with tint of purple; tips Hghter. On dry-
ing colors become lighter. Spores deep smoky brown, irregularly warted
or with blunt spines, 4.5-7 X 6. 5-8. 5m.

4610. Damp, sandy soil below Meeting of Waters, July 31, 1920. Plants 2-3 cm.
high.
North Carolina. Schweinitz.

3. Thelephora vialis Schw.
T. tephroleuca B. & C.

Plate 26

Plant about 3-5 cm. high, and about 3-6 cm. broad, expanding
and branching upward from a contracted base. The branchlets are
broad and flat and fuse at any point, usually so consolidated as to
form one complicated mass with the upper surface deeply lobed and
nodulated. Flesh firm, coriaceous, very hard on drying and then
giving off a distinct, rather sharp, aromatic odor that is hardly dis-
agreeable. Hymenium inferior, rugose or smoothish, pale yellowish
when young, becoming brown.

Spores said by Burt to be olive buff under the microscope, bluntly
angular, 4.5-5 X 4.5-7tJL.

Burt notices a "disagreeable" odor in drying; others do not men-
tion an odor. We have found the plant to be rare here. When

188 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Curtis speaks of it as common he probably included the very common

Tremellodendroyi candidum.

1059. On ground in woods near campus, fall of 1913.

Asheville. Beardslee.
North Carolina. Atkinson.
North Carolina. Schweinitz.
Common, woods and roadsides. Curtis.

4. Thelephora regularis Schw.

Plate 25

Small plants growing on damp mossy earth; at times spathulate
in form, flat or the margins rolled back so as to be half infundibuli-
form, again infundibuliform with the margin divided and multiple
(as in No. 4435), height about 2-3 cm., the base narrowed gradually
into a cylindrical stalk about 1-2 mm. thick. Flattened portion
about 5-15 mm. wide. Dorsal surface nearly smooth or roughish
tomentose with Hght channels, and sometimes tubercles, a buffy
flesh color; spore-bearing surface a dark fleshy gray or purplish fawn,
with a glaucous bloom. Flesh tough, elastic, about color of the
dorsal surface, with a bitterish harsh taste. In drying the plants
become grayish brown, losing their flesh tints. Young parts of both
hymenium and dorsal surface turn a dark wine brown when rubbed.

Spores when fully mature, angular, about honey color under
the microscope, subspherical, smooth, 5-6[jl in diameter. The spores
are slow to take their color and to become rough, still appearing
white and smooth until nearly full grown. Basidia club-shaped,
four-spored, sterigmata about 4[j, long; no cystidia.

According to descriptions the plants may assume a regular in-
fundibuliform shape like a perfect cup, and Burt thinks (1. c, p. 206)
that T. multipartita, which is reported by Schweinitz from this state,
is only a branched form of this species.

1597. In damp mossy earth by branch southwest of graded school, July 10, 1915.
1622. Same spot as No. 1597, July 21, 1915. Photo.
4435. Damp, sandy soil by Battle's Branch, July 17, 1920.

Salem. Schweinitz.
North Carolina. Atkinson.

PLATE 25

THELEPHORA REGULARIS. No. 1622.

PLATE 26

THELEPHORA VIALIS. No. 1059 [above].
THELEPHORA TERRESTRIS. No. 3840 [below].

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 189

5. Thelephora terrestris Ehrh.

T. laciniata Pers.

Plate 26

Caps scattered to densely imbricated, in part incrusting, more
or less fused, bracketed and broadly attached by the side, projecting
about 1-2 cm., upper surface deep brown, fibrous-squamulose and
ridged all over, not zonate; hymenium brown, paler on margin, un-
even; margin thin, fimbriate. Flesh thin, very soft, phable and
spongy-fibrous, color of surface, absorbing water immediately.

Spores not to be obtained from our plants when found. Burt
gives them as pale fuscous, irregular, angular, sometimes slightly
tuberculate, 6-9 X 6^.

Recognized by the squamulose cap, dark color, very soft and
spongy, bibulous flesh and shelving growth on coniferous substrata,
upon which it climbs from the ground. According to Burt the spe-
cies also grows in sandy fields. For further interesting observations
by Burt see Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1: 219. 1914.

3840. Running up the base of a cedar from the ground, south of athletic field.
December 7, 1919. Photo.
Asheville. Beardslee.
Salem. Schweinitz.
Common on earth and trunks. Curtis.

6. Thelephora intybacea (Pers.) Fr.

Plate 35

Plant 5.5 cm. high, 4.5 cm. broad, compound from a solid amor-
phous base, the flabelliform, petaloid or infundibuliform blades aris-
ing on more or less distinct stalks and gradually expanding upwards;
margins thin, expanded, more or less lobed and cut, but not fimbri-
ated; dorsal (interior) surface inherently fibrous and ridged but not
squamulose, dark brown, about Prout's brown to bister of Ridgway;
when dry the margins black; hymenial (outer) surface a lighter gray-
brown (buffy-drab) , the younger parts paler. Texture when dry
rigid and hard above, very firmly spongy below; when wet pliable
and elastic and quite bibulous; odor none when dry, but when wet it
has a strong rank smell, something like freshly cut black oak. When
wet the hymenium is much darker and approaches the dorsal surface
in color.

190 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

Spores (of No. 4672) irregularly angled, strongly papillate-warted,
5-7 X 6-7.5[x.

Distinguished from T. terrestris by the absence of free squamules
and the non-fimbriate margin. Both are found on coniferous sub-
strata. In our only specimen there has been proliferation on the
dorsal surface which has obscured the color by adding a spongy
whitish layer over much of the middle and lower region.
4672. Mixed woods by Battle's Branch, among pine needles and a few oak leaves,
October 9, 1920.
Asheville. Beardslee.

7. Thelephora griseozonata Cooke

Plates 27 and 35

Plants up to 5.5 cm. wide, usually about 2.5-3 cm., stalked and
upright, the thin, pliable, tough cap spreading upward like an irregu-
lar dish with deep lobes or only shallow cuts, very fibrous and radi-
ately ridged, the margin fimbriated in all cases; color deep brownish-
purple all over, the upper side with rather conspicuous zones of dif-
ferent tints. Hymenium rugose with low veins, disappearing grad-
ually into the stalk Stalk 3-7 mm. thick and 1-1.8 cm. long, tough,
color of cap.

Spores purplish brown, irregularly lobed and warted, oblong,
about 5.5 X 7.5^.

The plants are gregarious but usually single or lightly clustered.
They occur in colonies under pines.

975. In pines, hillside pasture, west side of Glen Burnie Farm, November 11,
1913. Photo and drawings. It also occurs in a similar situation on
the east side of Glen Burnie Farm.
2426. Under young pine on Three Pine Hill, Glen Burnie Farm, July 26, 19] 6.
Photo.

8. Thelephora cuticularis Berk.

Plate 35

Plants shelving, laterally sessile by a more or less resupinate
base, often confluent laterally, projecting about 2-4 cm. Dorsal
surface radially wrinkled, inherently fibrous and felted, the margin
felted pubescent when quite fresh; in the wet, growing state nearly
jet black, the wrinkled margin pure white; hymenium drab with a
tint of purple when dry, nearly black when wet. Flesh rather thin,

<5

<

O

o
w

o

O

W

K
H

1931] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 191

about 1-1.5 mm. thick, pliable, easily water-soaked, color of the
surface both when wet and when dry. In our plants there was no
noticeable odor in the fresh state, but the dried plants have a faint,
not unpleasant drug-Uke odor. The species is said by Berkeley to
have a foetid odor, and Burt noticed such an odor in the dried state.

Spores (of No. 3432) smoky brown, subspherical, flattened on
one side, covered with sharp spines, 7.4-9 x 7.4-1 Ijjl.

The black color of the plants (both dorsal surface and hymenium)
in the damp growing state is not mentioned in the descriptions. It
is the most conspicuous field character. If dropped in water after
drying the dorsal surface and context absorb water and change color
instantly as in T. terrestris and T. alhido-hrunnea, but unlike those
the hymenium absorbs water much more slowly and becomes black
only after several minutes. This, with the blacker color (when wet),
furnishes an easy mark of distinction.

3432. On bark of oak tree, Battle's Park, and some from below Meeting of the
Waters, August 1.5, 1919.

9. Thelephora albido-brunnea Schw.

Plates 28 and 35

Caps tough and elastic, horizontal and irregularly bracketed or
sometimes centrally stipitate from an amorphous, resupinate, often
spore-bearing base, extensively fused together, the individual caps
not often more than 3.5 cm. wide, or extending more than 1.8 cm.;
often encircling and climbing up sticks or shrubs or small saplings
for several inches and in such case thicker and more amorphous;
surface fibrous-spongy, tomentose when young, distinctly or obscurely
zonate, dull cinnamon or buffy cinnamon, or when young pale brown
to whitish, becoming paler when washed out in age by the weather,
margin blunt, white in growing stage, later concolorous. Flesh
about 1-2.5 mm. thick in the distinct caps, thicker in the amorphous
masses; felty and soft, the fibers extensively furnished with clamp
connections at the joints, color of surface or a darker rust color.
Hymenium when fresh brownish drab to wood brown, fleshy-looking,
when old and dry very hght fleshy brown, smooth, no setae, easily
wearing off and exposing the rust-colored flesh below.

Spores (print of No. 4409) smoky brown, irregularly angled,
echinulate, 7-10 x 7.4-1 1[jl.

192 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

When dropped in water after drying the entire plant, including
the hymenium, becomes water-soaked immediatel5\
1328. On soil and sticks, just above path by Battle's Branch, east of Dr. Battle's,

October 9, 1914. Spores rusty, tuberculate-spiny, subspberical, about

7.6m in diameter.
4409. Around bases of young living trees and shrubs, July 14, 1920. Photo.
4467. Base of tree near Meeting of the Waters, July 27, 1920. Spores dark smoky

purple, spiny, 6-7.5 X 7.5-10m-
4470. Around a rotten twig on damp soil, July 30, 1920.

10. Thelephora lutosa Schw.

This is known only from the type collection which is from Salem,
N. C. Bm-t describes the plant as follows (Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1 :
216):

"Pilei cespitose, densely imbricated, at first somewhat fleshy
but at length hard, undulate-plicate, yellowish, almost subtomen-
tose with pulverulence, somewhat horizontally attenuated behind,
margin sublobate, at length inflexed; pileus less than 2 mm. thick,
with hyphae 3[jl in diameter; hymenium becoming yellowish, even;
spores olive-buff under the microscope, angular, 5-6 X 33/2~4[jl.

''Cluster about 13^2 cm. high and broad.

"On the ground in roads and in woods. North Carolina.

"The type is distinct from T. albido-bnmnea, having thinner
pileus, finer hyphae, and smaller and paler spores. The pilei were
crowded together into a small buff-colored cluster about 13^ cm,
high and broad, somewhat as in Tremellodendron pallidum (Schw.);
I failed to find stems at their bases."

11. Thelephora fimbriata Schw.

The only record from this state seems the original one by Schwein-
itz (as Merisma). We have examined two collections of this from
Andros, Bahamas (determined by Burt), and find that there are dense
clusters of branches, simple to sparingly branched which reach a
length of 1.3 cm. They are a buffy ochraceous when dry and are
densely felted with intricately branched hairs. As we have not
found the plant in the fresh state we take the following from Burt
(Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1: 222. 1914):

"Fructification coriaceous-soft, incrusting and ascending small
plants (mosses, etc.) here and there emitting fascicles of branches
united below, subterete, acuminate or fimbriately incised, at first

PLATE 28

THELEPHORA ALBIDO-BRUNNEA.
No. 4470 [top left]; No. 4407 [top right]; No. 4409 [below.

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 193

pale or whitish, soon ferruginous brown, drying Rood's brown; hy-
menium even, pruinose-pubescent; spores umbrinous, tuberculate,
7-11 X 6-9tx.

"Incrusting and ascending upward 1-3 cm.; free branches 5-10
mm. long, 1 mm. thick, sweep of fascicle about 5-10 mm.

"In moist places. New York to South Carohna, and west to
Illinois. July and August.

"The type is an incrusting specimen, covering as its main axis
a small twig in one specimen and a moss in the other, and sending
out a few lateral branches which are flattened towards the free ends
and 'subfimbriate; main trunk is cyhndric, latericius (of 'Chromo-
taxia'), ends of branches paler; spores umbrinous under the micro-
scope, tuberculate, 7-8 X 6[jl. Schweinitz described the species as
becoming hard and cartilaginous, but this is an error probably due
to the foreign matter surrounded by the main trunk. Several other
specimens are present in his herbarium under various names."
Salem. Schweinitz.

SPARASSIS

Tough and elastic but fleshy, repeatedly branched into a semi-
globose mass of flat, contorted, anastomosing branches, the hy-
menium covering only the outer (morphologically under) surfaces,
except at times on the innermost vertical branches (see Cotton,
Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 5: 333. 1911). This fact requires the re-
moval of Sparassis from the Clavariaceae, where it has usually been
referred.

We have found only one species in Chapel Hill, which we refer
to S. Herhstii Pk., without conviction that it is different from S.
spathulata Schw. Spm-assis crispa is found in our mountains.

All species are edible, and are credited with being dehcious. For
parasitism of Sparassis see Hedwigia 54: 328. 1914; and Journ.
Royal Myc. Soc. for 1914, page 386.

Key to the Species

( S. Herhstii (1)
Branches thick, blunt, not crisped j ^ spathulata (2)

Branches thin, much crisped S. crispa (3)

194 Journal of the Mitchell Society February

1. Sparassis Herbstii Pk.

Plates 29 and 35

A large and very pretty plant of a complicated growth, that occurs
on wood that is usually under or at the surface of the ground. It is
composed of many upright and spreading, flat, rather thick, anas-
tomosing branches with blunt ends that spring from a single large
fleshy base. The entire plant is approximately globose or flattened-
globose and is of variable size, in No. 1363 being about 14 cm. high
and 15 cm. broad. The apices of the branches are whitish and tomen-
tose, the lower parts cream colored, water-soaked, and smooth. The
texture of the whole is very tough and elastic. The plate-like branches
bear spores only on the outer surface, and in fresh specimens the
texture of the two surfaces can be seen to be different.

Spores (of No. 1363) white, nearly spherical to short-eUiptic,
smooth, one large oil drop, 3.4-4.2 x 4.6-6.8^1.

This is possibly not different from the next.

524. In pine woods northwest of Mr. Weaver's house across railroad, October 6,

1912. Photo.
787. Woods south of athletic field, September 17, 1913.
1363. Growing from between the bark at foot of a pine stump in the new road

to Piney Prospect, October 16, 1914.

2. Sparassis spathulata (Schw.) Fr.

Stereum carolinense Cooke and Rav.

This is possibly not different from *S. Herbstii Pk. but I give below
the original description (translation) :

"Erect, coriaceous, paUid brown, concrescent from upright blades,
with spathulate branches wavy at the apex and rounded zones.
Rare in grassy places, also sent from Georgia; reaching six inches
in height, growing in large groups, with concentric horizontal zones.
Of doubtful genus and said to be uncertain as to whether it is more
nearly related to Clavaria crispa or Spathularia."

To this scanty diagnosis I add the original description of Stereum
carolinense Cooke and Ravenel (Journ. Myc. 1: 130. 1885), which
Cotton has shown to be almost certainly Sparassis spathulata. (Trans.
Brit. Myc. Soc. 5: 336. 1911.)

"Pileus multiplex, infundibuliform, deeply incised, forming lobes
variable in size, all confluent at the base in a common stem. Whole
plant six inches high, 4-5 inches broad, ochraceous, with faint zones

PLATE 29

SPARASSIS HERBSTII, No. 524. Slightly reduced.

1921] The Thelephoraceae of North Carolina 195

of darker color, margin of lobes entire, surface smooth. Hymenium
even, ochraceous-white; stem minutely velvety."

Wilmington, N. C. (As Slereum caroliniense Cke. and Rav.) Dr.

Thomas F. Wood.
Low and middle districts on earth. Curtis.

3. Sparassis crispa (Wulf.) Fr.

This fine species is rare in North Carolina. It has not been
found in Chapel Hill, but I have seen it at Kanuga, and Beardslee
has it from Asheville. It is much more crisped and irregular than
*S. Herhstii, with thinner and more intricate branches that do not
form the rather obvious labyrinths that are characteristic of the
latter species. Its diameter is usually about 10-20 cm., but it has
been reported larger. The color is a soaked, translucent, yellowish-
white, becoming brownish in age. Like S. Herhstii, it also grows
from the wood of conifers that is on or under the ground. Edible
and very good.

Asheville. Beardslee.
Kanuga. Coker.
Upper district, on earth. Curtis.
Chapel Hill, N. C.

Explanation of Plates

PLATE 30

Cyphella muscigena. No. 393 L Fig. L
Cyphella fascicvlaia. No. 400L Fig. 2.
Cyphella cupulaeformis. No. 4019. Fig. 3.
Solenia poriaeformis. No. 4686. Figs. 4-6.
Aleurodiscus Oakesii. No. 3937. Figs. 7-1 L
Aleurodiscus candidus. No. 3827. Figs. 12-14.
Aleurodiscus candidus var. sphaerosporus. No. 3902. Figs. 15-17.
Figs. 1, 2, 5, 11, 13, 15, X 1440; fig. 6 X 108; others X720.

PLATE 31

Aleurodiscus riivosus. No. 3897. Fig. 1; No. 3920. Figs. 2 and 3.
Aleurodiscus botryosus. No. 4710. Figs. 4-6 (fig. 5, paraphysis and proteid body).
Aleurodiscus macrodens. No. 4734. Figs. 7-9.
Coniophora arida. No. 4219. Figs. 10 and 11.
Peniophora gigantea. No. 4306. Fig. 12.
Peniophora violaceo-lividum. No. 3914. Fig. 13.
Peniophora albomarginala. No. 3849. Figs. 14 and 15.
Figs. 1, 4, 11, 14, X1440; others X720.

196 Journal of the Mitchell Society [February

PLATE 32

Peniophora cinerea. No. 4299. Fig. 1 ; No. 4045. Fig. 2.

Peniophora longispora. No. 4250. Fig. 3.

Peniophora mutata. No. 3993. Fig. 4.

Peniophora filamentosa. No. 4264. Fig. 5; No. 4607. Fig. 6 (in fig. 5 crystals

dissolved off by KOH).
Hypochnus fuscus. No. 4267. Figs. 7-9.

Hymenochaete corrugata. No. 4076. Fig. 10. ,»

Hymenochaete Curtisii. No. 3830. Fig. 11; No. 3875. Fig. 12.
Figs. 1, 8, 1), X1440; others X720.

PLATE 33

Corticium caeruleimi. No. 4018. Fig. 1.

Corticium lilacino-fuscuni. No. 4071. Fig. 2. (This fails to show paraphvses

well.)
Corticium roseum. No. 4703. Figs. 3 and 4 (basidium and contorted thread of

hymenium); No. 3981. Fig. 5.
Corticium Viticola. No. 4693. Fig. 6.
Corticium arachnoideum. No. 4235a. Figs. 7 and 8.
Corticium vagum. No. 4259. Fig. 9; No. 4230. Fig. 10.

Figs. 5, 6, 8, 9, X1440; others X720.

PLATE 34

Corticium scutellare. No. 4223. Fig. 1; No. 4696. Fig. 2.

Asterostroma cervicolor. No. 4507. Figs. *¥— *^ (Fig. "W-, fragmentary hyphae of
lower region). 3— <» <»

Figs. 2,'9r8' X 1440; l,\ X 720; ^ ' X 10? ; others X 4\7.
f i

PLATE 35

Stereum gaumpatum. No. 3821. Fig. 1.

Stereum sanguinolentum. No. 3967. Fig. 2.

Stereum subpileatum. No. 3955. Fig. 3.

Stereum lobatum. No. 3816. Fig. 4.

Stereum rameale. No. 3863. Fig. 5. Form on cedar. No. 4318. Fig. 6.

Stereum sericeum. No. 3962. Fig. 7.

Stereum ochraceoflavum. No. 4033. Fig. 8.

Stereum frustulosum. No. 3814. Figs. 9 and 10.

Thelephora multipartita. No. 3468. Fig. 11.

Thelephora intybacea. No. 4672. Fig. 12.

Thelephora griseo-zonata. No. 975. Figs. 13-15.

Thelephora cuticularis. No. 3432. Fig- 16.

Thelephora albido-brunnea. No. 4467. Fig. 17.

Sparassis Herbstii. No. 1363. Fig. 18.

Figs. 1-8, 10-12, 16-18, X1440; others X720.

PLATE 31

PLATE 32

PLATE 33

PI. ATE 34

PLATE 35

0) U

15

ov (O,

f^

■ r

/'

t

16

CONTENTS OF RECENT NUMBERS

Volume 35, Double Number 1 and 2

Proceedings of the Eighteenth Meeting of the North

Carolina Academy of Science 1

Notes on the Occurrence of Tintinnus Serratus in Chesa-
peake Bay. Bert Cunningham 12

On Some Generic Distinctions in Sponges. H. V. Wilson . . 15
A Portable Printing Press for the Ecologist. Z. P.

Metcalf 20

Craterellus, Cantharellus, and Related Genera of Gill

Fungi. W.C.Coker 24

JuGLONE. Alvin S. Wheeler 49

Our Rats, Mice, and Shrews. C. S. Brimley 55

Notes on the Flora of Church's Island, North Carolina.

W. L. McAtee 61

The Distribution of Rhododendron Catawbiense, with

Remarks on a New Form. W. C. Coker 76

Volume 35, Double Number 3 and 4

Chlorination by Mixed Carbon Monoxide and Chlorine.

Francis P. V enable and D. H. Jackson 87

A Rapid Volumetric Method for Determination of Arsenic

IN Arsenates. James M. Bell 90

The Land of Ferns. John K. S^nall 92

The Regional Geography of South Carolina Illustrated

BY Census Statistics. Roland M. Harper 105

Notes on the Lower Basidiomycetes of North Carolina.

W. C. Coker 113

Volume 36, Double Number 1 and 2

Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, .

December, 1916, to March, 1920 1

Proceedings of the North Carolina Academy of Science , . 7

The Theory of Relativity. A. H. Patterson 19

A New Method for Laying Out Curves by Deflection

FROM THE p. I. T. F. Hickerson 42

A Remarkable Form of Skeletal Element in the Lithistid
Sponges (a Case of Analogical Resemblance). H. V.

Wilson 54

The Turtles of North Carolina. C. S. Brimley 62

A Little-Known Vetch Disease. Frederick A. Wolf 72

Notes on the Mosquito Fauna of North Carolina. Frank-
lin Sherman 86

An Interesting Fertilizer Problem. H. B. Arhuckle 94

Azalea Atlantica Ashe and Its Variety luteo-alba n. var.

W. C. Coker 97

A New Species of Achlya. W. C. Coker and /. N. Couch 100

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOLUME XXXVII

1921-1922

ISSUED QUARTERLY

Published for the Society

by the

University of North Carolina

t

CONTENTS

Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society,

February, 1921, to May, 1921 1

Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Meeting of the

North Carolina Academy of Science 6

John Francis Lanneau, 1836-1921 17

The Age of Insects. Z. P. Metcalf 19

The Genus Raspailia and the Independent Variability of

Diagnostic Features. H. Y. Wilson 54

An Interesting Maximal Case. Archibald Henderson and

H. G. Baity 61

Key to the Butterflies of North Carolina. C. S. Brimley . . 73

A Theorem on Double Points in Involution. J. W. Lasley, Jr. 80
The Collybias of North Carolina. W. S. Coker and H. C.

Beardslee 83

Abstracts and Reviews 108

Isotopes. Francis P. V enable 115

Some Considerations in Defense of the General Biology ,

Course. J. P. Givler 123

Notes on the Oecology and Life-History of the Texas

Horned Lizard, Phrynosoma Cornutum. J. P. Givler .... 130

A Magnetite-Marble Ore at Lansing, N. C. W. 8. Bayley .... 138
A Botanical Bonanza in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama.

Roland M. Harper 153

Fishes in Relation to Mosquito Control. Samuel F.

Hildehrand 161

Notes on the Morphology and Systematic Relationship

OF Sclerotium Rolfsii Sacc. B. B. Higgins 167

An Interesting Anomaly in the Pulmonary Veins of Man.

W. C. George 173

The Eastern Shrubby Species of Robinia. W. W. Ashe 175

A New Oak from the Gulf States. W. D. Sterrett 178

A New Genus of Water Mold Related to Blastocladia.

W. C. Coker and F. A. Grant 180

Forest Types of the Appalachians and White Mountains.

W. W. Ashe 183

Index to Volumes 32-37 200

DOUBLE NUMBER

VOL. XXXVII DECEMBER, 1921 Nos. I & 2

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

CONTENTS

Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society,
j^ February, 1921, to May, 1921 i

Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Meeting of the

North Carolina Academy of Science 6

John Francis Lanneau, 1836-1921 ..17

The Age of Insects. Z. P. Metcalf 19

The Genus Raspailia and the Independent Variability of
Diagnostic Features, H. V. Wilson 54

An Interesting Maximal Case. Archibald Henderson and
H. G. Baity 61

Key to the Butterflies of North Carolina. C. S. Brimley. . . 73

A Theorem on Double Points in Involution. /. W. Lasley, Jr.. 80

The C0LLYBLA.S of North Carolina. W. C. Coker and
H. C. Beardslee 83

Abstracts and Reviews 108

ISSUED QUARTEBLT

CHAPEL HILL, N. C, U. S. A.

ENTERED AT THE POST OFFICE AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER

The Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

W. deB. MacNIDER, President.

W. F. PROUTY, Vice-President.

J. M. BELL, H. R. TOTTEN,

Permanent Secretary. Recording Secretary.

Editors of the Journal:

W. C. COKER, Chairman.
J. M. BELL. COLLIER COBB

Journal op the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society — Quarterly.
Price $3.00 per year; double numbers, $1.50 Numbers for sale are listed
iuside the back cover. Direct all correspondence to the Permanent Sec-
retary, at the University of North CaroUna, Chapel Hill, N. C.

In addition to original papers on scientific subjects this Journal pub-
lishes the Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, and the
Proceedings of the North Carolina Academy of Science, as well as abstracts
of papers on scientific subjects published elsewhere by members of the Fac-
ulty of the University of North Carolina.

Published for the Society

by the

University of North Carolina

PLATE 1

1 COLLYBIA LILAClNAn. sp. No. 3290

2 (X)LLYBIA CIRRATA. No. 3743

3. COLLYBIA PLATYPHYLLA. No. 1263

JOURNAL

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

Volume XXXVII DECEMBER Nos. I and 2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY, FEBRUARY, 1921, TO MAY, 1921

246th Meeting— February 8, 1921

Dr. Edward J. Wood (Class of 1899), of Wilmington, N. Q.~Our
Debt in Medicine to the British.

The speaker mentioned briefly a few of the outstanding contribu-
tions to the making of modern medicine by the British. The pioneer
worker was William Harvey who described the circulation of the
blood and must be accredited with the discovery. Special reference
was made to that little group of nineteenth century physicians in
London who, at Guy's Hospital, made such a remarkable contribu-
tion within a few years. There was Addison who first described Ad-
dison 's disease. Bright who first described Bright 's disease, Hodgkin
who first described Hodgkin 's disease and finally Sir Ashley Cooper,
a great surgeon and a pioneer in medical education.

The real burden of the address was the contribution in parasitol-
ogy. The remarkable achievements of Sir Patrick Manson were
mentioned briefly, the genius of Louis W. Sambon applying his great
knowledge of medical zoology, the discovery of the mosquito in its
role in malaria transmission by Sir Ronald Ross, the work of Sir
David Bruse and others in determining the relation of the trypano-
some to sleeping sickness of Africa and the relation of the tse-tse fly
to its transmission. The work of Sir William Leishman in the dis-
covery (with division of honor to Donovan) of the protozoal cause of
dum-dum fever of India.

The need of a medical zoological survey in North Carolina was
mentioned. It was hinted that schistosomiasis had been recently
found in the state and at least one case of kala-azar. The educational
need along these lines was also emphasized.

[11

2 Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

247th Meeting— March 8, 1921

W. C. George. — Comparative Anatomy of the Brain.

The principal morphological sulxlivisions and connections of the
human brain were described and their probable phylogeny outlined.
The relation of the environmental conditions and habits of life of
animals to the degree of development of special parts of the brain
was indicated. Dissections of brains of an elasmobranch fish, a frog,
reptile, bird, rat, mole, cat and man were exhibited to show homolo-
gous parts of the brain and the degree of development under different
conditions of life.

Otto Stuhlman, Jr. — So77ie Unsolved Problems of Modern Physics.

No science has gone through a more stormy period of develop-
ment than physics during the last decade. Our most cherished
theories have undergone most violent upheavals, the result of which
no one at this time can predict with certainty. These discoveries
have forced us to adopt new and contradictory explanations, w^hich
in general may be divided into three groups: (a) X-rays and the
emissions from radio-active substances ; (5) The theory of radiation ;
(c) The so-called theory of relativity.

Of these the "Theory of Radiation" was discussed and some of
the outstanding problems that require solution were explained in
detail.

Amongst those mentioned was Wien's Displacement Law and the
contributions made by Planck. The classical theory of specific heat
and entropy and its quantum modifications were discussed. The
quantum theory as applied to the emission of electrons from bodies
was mentioned and some of the outstanding problems were discussed
in detail. The unsolved problems in the photo-electic field were next
enumerated and their possible bearing on the structure of matter
was sketched. Series spectra and the numerous problems confron-
ting the physicist in this field were finallj^ enumerated. The paper
closed with a review of the Lewis-Langmuier theory of the structure
and physical properties of nitrogen and carbon monoxide.

248th Meeting— April 12, 1921

Thorndike Saville — The Water Power Situation in North Carolina.
This paper presents the results of a statistical study of the devel-

19£l] Proceedings of Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 3

oped hydro-electric power in North Carolina. It is shown that there
is at present a total installed capacity of about 356,000 H. P. in plants
producing hydro-electric power. Of this, 80,000 H. P. or 22 per cent
is transmitted for use outside the state; 113,000 H. P. or 32 per cent
is used at Badin in the local reduction of aluminum; while only 164,-
000 H. P. or 46 per cent is available for general industrial and public
use. Of the latter 98,500 H. P. or 28 per cent of the total (60 per
cent of the 164,000 generally available) is developed by two large
public service corporations.

The total output of electrical energy by public service plants has
increased 25 per cent from 1919 to 1920, and over 6000 per cent from
1907 to 1920. If the output increases at 12 per cent per year (one
half the present annual rate) there will be a demand in 1925 for
1,434,000 kw. hr. and in 1930 for 2,528,000 kw. hr. To meet this de-
mand, if the present proportion of output by water power is to be
maintained (85 per cent) there will be needed additional develop-
ment of 200,000 H. P. by water power in 1925 and of 624,000 H. P.
by 1930. To develop this amount of water power will mean many
new hydro-electric installations in the state, and the utilization of
most of the economically available water power sites. It is estimated
that about 1,500,000 H. P. is still undeveloped at sites in this state,
but only a portion of this amount can be economically developed
under present conditions.

Fred F. Bahnson (Class of 1896), of Winston Salem, N. C.~The
Science of Humidification, with Demonstration of a New Humidifier.
Entirely too little attention has been paid to humidification in all
manufacturing processes except those where the advantages are very
plainly apparent, such as textiles. All materials of animal or vege-
table origin and a number of mineral origin are affected by the humid-
ity of the air in which they are stored or used, and this effect is pro-
portional to the relative humidity or percentage of saturation, rather
than the actual humidity or pounds of water per thousand cubic feet
of space.

Since the weight of a. cubic foot of saturated aqueous vapor just
about doubles for each twenty degrees rise in temperature, it is ob-
vious that even if the out-door humidity is sufficiently high, the in-
door humidity will always be too low^ whenever artificial heat is used.
This simply means that artificial means of supplying moisture must
be used practically every day in the year, because even in summer

4 Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

weather out-door humidity is apt to be below what it should be for
satisfactory manufacture.

"With exception of textile fibres, the curves for moisture content
of various materials with reference to atmospheric conditions have
not been determined.

The various commercial methods of humidification were men-
tioned and briefly described, and the Bahnson Humidifier was dem-
onstrated under actual operating conditions.

249th Meeting— May 10, 1921

Archibald Henderson — The Lorentz Transformation in Einstein

Relativity.

Dr. Henderson attempted to give in the simplest possible mathe-
matical terms the explanation of the Principle of Relativity (in the
restricted sense), following the lines worked out by Einstein himself.
After deriving the equations of the Lorentz transformations, Dr. Hen-
derson gave their mathematical interpretation (1) The systems are en-
tirely symmetrical; (2) A beam of light must have the same velocity,
when viewed in the variables of either system; (3) The equations for
low velocities reduce to the Newtonian equations; (4) A meter-stick
perpendicular to the direction of motion remains constant. Analyz-
ing these equations further, Dr. Henderson showed the interdepen-
dence of time and space which they present, so that the phrase
"points" in "space" is replaced by the expression "events" in "the
world." The in variance function was interpreted as indicating a
"rotation" in four-dimension Euclidian space with imaginary time-
axis; or else, a "rotation" in four-dimension non-Euclidian space
with real time-axis. It was pointed out that the Einstein theory of
Relativity raises the deepest questions regarding space, time, gravi-
tation, and the essential characteristics of the physical universe.

W. C. CoKER — Effect of Length of Day on Growth and Reproduction of

Plants.

A review was given, illustrated by lantern slides, of the highly
significant work of Garner and Allard on this subject. Mr. Allard
was assistant in botany in this University sixteen years ago and went
from here to the Department of Agriculture in Washington, where he
is still working. In an extended series of experiments with growing
plants the authors have shown that the length of day, that is the time

192l] Proceedings of Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 5

of exposure to light, is by far the most important factor in initiating
or retarding the production of flowers and fruit. For example, a
certain variety of soy-beans when exposed to light for only seven
hours a day blossomed on June 15th, while those exposed to full day-
light did not bloom until September 4th. The majority of the plants
experimented with showed similar hastening of flowering when ex-
posed to short day, but several plants responded in the opposite man-
ner and were much retarded in blooming by a short day. The au-
thors believe that their work will have a considerable practical effect
on agriculture, as it shows that the time of seeding for best results
will depend on the lengths of day to which the crops will be exposed.
They also believe that the natural distribution of plants on the earth
is governed more or less directly by the seasonal length of day which
obtains for the different latitudes from the equator to the poles.

Election of Officers:

President — ^W. DeB. MacNider.
Vice-President — W. F. Prouty.
Permanent Secretary — -J. M. Bell.
Recording Secretary and Treasurer — H. II. Totten,
Editorial Committee — W. C. Coker^ chairman; J. M. Bell, Collier
Cobb.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTIETH ANNUAL MEETING
OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Held at Wake Forest College, Wake Forest, N. C.
April 29-30, 1921

The Executive Committee met at 2.00 P. M. on April 29th in the
Lecture Room of the Alumni Building with the following present:
Z. P. Metcalf, President, and C. S. Brimley, Acting Secretary, other
members, R. N. Wilson, F. A. Wolf, and A. H. Patterson, the latter
acting for H. R. Totten, who was absent.

President Metcalf stated that the Legislative Committee author-
ized at the last meeting of the Academy to solicit funds from the
legislature had not been appointed, owing to the financial stringency
existing in the state at the time of the session of that body. He also
stated that affiliation with the American Association had been com-
pleted except for the official notice from the permanent secretary of
that organization.

The Executive Committee then passed resolutions recommending
the following measures to the Academy for favorable action :

1. Increasing the annual dues to !H;2.00 per member.

2. .That the terms of the officers of the Academy should begin
with the adjournment of the meeting at which they are elected, and
should expire with the adjournment of the next regular annual meet-
ing.

3. That the 10 per cent allo\\ed the Secretary-Treasurer should
be only on the Academy dues collected by him, and not on the Ameri-
can Association dues collected by him for that body in future.

4. Appointment of a Publicity Committee.

5. Appointment of a Committee on Preservation of our Natural
Resources.

The Executive Committee then received and accepted the offer
of the University of North Carolina to hold the 1922 meeting at
Chapel Hill.

President Metcalf then announced that he had appointed Messrs.
W. H. Pegram, R. N. Wilson, and A. H. Patterson to draw up suitable
resolutions on the death of past-President of the Academy J. J.
Wolfe, and that the same had been prepared and published in the
Mitchell Journal, and that he had also appointed Messrs. W. L.
Poteat and C. E. Brewer to do the same with regard to the death of
past-President J. S. Lanneau.

[6]

1921] Proceedings of the Academy of Science 7

Thirty-six new members were elected as follows:* W.J.Andrews,
Miss Lucretia Baker, Miss E. E. Barrow, H. L. Blomquist, J. T.
Barnes, Wayne Burch, Miss E. G. Campbell, L. A. Denson, R. T.
Farrington, W. C. George, J. P. Givler, H. N. Gould, E. P. Jones, J.
W. Lasley, Jr., W. Bruce Mabee, T. B. Mitchell, W. deB. MacNider,
N. M. Paull, Charles PhilUps, T. E. Powell, Jr., R. H. Ruffner, E. E.
Randolph, A. F. Roller, Miss Mildred Sherrill, S. C. Smith, Wilham
E. Speas, Otto Stuhlman, Jr., R. W. Sullivan, C. C. Taylor, 0. J.
Thies, Jr., H. M. Vann, R. B. Wilson, Mrs. B. W. Wells, Miss Lula
G. Winston, Miss E. K. Wright, D. B. Wilson.

The Executive Committee then adjourned.

The Academy met at 2:30 P. M., when papers were read and dis-
cussed. The following committees were then announced by Pres-
ident Metcalf: Nominating — W. L. Poteat, A. S. Wheeler, and
C. W. Edwards. Resolutions — Messrs. Bert Cunningham, J. B.
Derieux and A. H. Patterson. Auditing — Messrs. R. N. Wilson, J. W.
Nowell and W. C. Coker.

The Academy then rose to accept the invitation of the Ladies'
Community Club to take tea with them at the Golf Cabin.

At 8.00 P. M. the Academy re-assembled in Wingate Memorial
Hall to hear the Presidential Address of President Z. P. Metcalf on
the "Age of Insects," which subject he handled in a highly instruc-
tive and scientific manner. A very interesting paper on Judgments
of Length, Mass, and Time by Dr. A. H. Patterson, of the University
of North Carolina, followed, after which the Academy adjourned for
the night.

On Saturday morning, April 30th, the Academy held its business
meeting at 9.00 A. M., President Metcalf in the chair.

The Secretary then read the report and recommendations of the
Executive Committee, all of which were adopted by the Academy.

The Nominating Committee then reported the following names
for officers of the Academy for the year beginning May 1, 192L

President — James L. Lake, Professor of Physics, Wake Forest Col-
lege.

Vice-President — Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist.

Secretary-Treasurer — Bert Cunningham, Professor of Biology,
Trinity College.

Additional Members of the Executive Committee — Messrs. H. R.

* For addresses see full list of Academy membership.

8 Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

Totten, University of North Carolina; R. N. Wilson, Trinity College;
F. A. Wolf, State College.

The Secretary then on motion cast the vote of the Acadeni}^ for
these gentlemen and they were declared elected.

The Resolutions Committee reported the following resolutions
which were adopted by a rising vote of the Academy:

1. That the North Carolina Academy of Science extend to the Fac-
ulty and President of Wake Forest College most hearty thanks for
and appreciation of their courtesy in tendering the use of the build-
ings and equipment of the college for the meeting of the Academy,
and in opening their homes to its members. This is the fourth meet-
ing to be held here and our memory of Wake Forest, both of the
town and of the college, has been one of consistent and generous hos-
pitality.

2. That the North Carolina Academy of Science extend its thanks
to the Ladies' Community Club of Wake Forest for the pleasant social
courtesies extended to the members of the Academy at the Golf Club
on yesterday afternoon and its hearty appreciation of the spirit of
kindly hospitality which prompted the giving of the tea at the Club
House.

The Auditing Committee then reported that they had examined
the accounts of Secretary R. W. Leiby and Acting Secretary C. S.
Brimley and found them correct and in good condition.

Reports follow:

Report of R. W. Leiby, Secretary'

Balance on hand April 29th, 1920 (audited) $196. 32

Receipts April 29 to Sept. 1, 1920 43. 00

Interest April 29, 1920, to April 1, 1921 5. 77

Total $245. 09

Disbursements

Expenses Secretary at 1920 meeting .28

Telegram to E. W. Gudger 95

Stenographic Services (Miss Hinsdale) 5. 00

Collection on check .10

Elisha Mitchell Journal 75. 00

81.33

Balance on hand April 15, 1921 $1G3. 76

W21] Proceedings of the Academy of Science 9

Report of C. S. Brimley, Acting Secretary, March 25 to April

29, 1921

Receipts, dues and entrance fees $105. 00

Disbursements —

Printing programs $17 . 00

Letterheads 6 . 00

500 stamped envelopes 12.31

Multigraphing 4 letters 3 . 00

10 per cent, on $105.00 10.50

48.81

Balance on hand April 29 $56. 19

Estimated Financial Condition of Academy —

Leiby's balance $163. 76

Brimley's balance 56. 19

Unpaid dues and fees (est . ) 50 . 00

For programs from Chemists 5 . 00

Total Credit . . . $274.95

Expenses —

Secretary's expenses at meeting 5 . 00

10 per cent, on $50.00 5. 00

Elisha Mitchell Journal 75 . 00

85.00

Estimated balance Jan. 1, 1922 .$189.95

President Metcalf then announced the appointment of the follow-
ing committees:

Publicity — Bert Cunningham, Chairman; A. H. Patterson, W. A.
Withers.

Preservation of Natural Resources. — Z. P. Metcalf, Chairman; J. S.
Hohnes, W. C. Coker, J. P. Givler, H. L. Blomquist, B. W. Wells.

On motion the Academy resolved to request the Mitchell Journal
to publish the names of the officers and standing committees on the
back of the Journal.

The Committee on Science Teaching in the High Schools was after
some discussion continued and the business session ended.

The Academy then met in joint meeting with the North CaroUna
Section of the American Chemical Society and heard several papers,
after which the chemists and physicists held a joint session separate
from the remainder of the Academy.

After the reading of the last paper the Secretary reported that he
had received a letter from Dr. E. W. Gudger, stating how much he had

10 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Dcceiitber

appreciated the Academy meetings in the past and how much he
missed them now that it was impossible for him to attend. He further-
more stated that he would retain his membership, and extend his best
wishes for a successful meeting. On motion the Secretary was in-
structed to write Dr. Gudger, thanking him for his continued interest
and good will.

The Academy adjourned at 3 P. M. to meet at Chapel Hill in 11)22.

Following is the present membership of the Academy. Those
marked with an asterisk were present at the meeting.

Andrews, William J., Civil Engineer Raleigh, N. C.

Arbuckle, H. B., Professor of Chemistry, Davidson College Davidson, X. C.

Babb, Josiah S., Dept. of Geology, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill

Bahnson, F. F., 28 Salisbury Road Winston-Salem, N. C.

Baker, Miss Lucretia, Meredith College Raleigh, N. C.

*Balderston, Mark Guilford College, N. C.

*Barnes, J. T., Dept. of Biology, Trinity College Durham, N. C.

Barret, Dr. H. P., 211 Vail Ave Charlotte, N. C.

Barrow, Miss Elva E., North Carolina College for Women Greensboro, N. C.

*Bell, J. M., Smith Professor of Chemistry, University of North Car — Chapel Hill

Binford, Raymond, President Guilford College Guilford College, N. C.

Bonney, Miss E. C, 1421 Fourteenth Ave Hickory, N. C.

Bottum, Miss F. R., St. Mary's School Raleigh, N. C.

*Blomquist, H. L., Dept. of Biology, Trinity College Durham, X. C.

Brewer, C. E., President Meredith College Raleigh, N. C.

*Brimley, C. S., Division of Entomology, N. C, Dept. of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C.

Brimley, H. H., Curator State Museum Raleigh, N. C.

Browne, Wm. Hande, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, State College, Raleigh, N. C.

Bruner, S. C, Estacion Agronomica Santiago de las Vegas, Cuba

*Bunitt, J. B., Professor of Pathology, Univ. of North Carohna Chapel Hill

*Burch, Wayne, Trinity College Durham, N. C.

Cain, William, Kenan Prof. Emeritus of Math., Univ. of N. C Chapel Hill

*Campbell, Miss Eva G., Dept. of Biology, North Car. Coll. for Women, Greensboro

Clapp, S. C, Superintendent State Test Farm Swannanoa, N. C.

Cobb, Collier, Professor of Geology, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill

Cobb, WiUiam B., Louisiana State University /Baton Rouge, La.

*Coker, W. C, Kenan Prof, of Botany, Univ. of North Carolina Chapel Hill

Collett, R. W White Hall, S. C.

Couch, J. N., Biology Teacher, Charlotte High School, Charlotte, N. C.

*Cunningham, Bert, Professor of Biology, Trinity College Durham, N. C.

Davis, Harry T., Assistant Curator State Museum Raleigh, N. C.

Denson, Lee A., U. S. Weather Bureau Raleigh, N. C.

*Derieux, J. B., State College Raleigh, N. C.

*Di.xon, A. A., State College Raleigh, N. C.

Downing, J. S Elsmere, Del.

1921] Proceedings of the Academy of Science 11

*Edwards, C. W., Professor of Physics, Trinity College Durham, N. C.

Farmer, C. M., 115 Orange St Troy, Ala.

*rarrington, R. K'., Trinity College Durham, N. C.

George,W. C. , Assoc. Prof . of Histology and Embryology, Univ. of N. C, Chapel Hill
*Givler, J. P., Professor of Biology, North Carolina College for Women, Green.sboro

*Gould, H. N., Dept. Biology, Wake Forest College Wake Forest, N. C.

*Gross, Paul, Dept. of Chemistry, Trinity College, 1001 Trinity Ave. . .Durham, N. C.

Groves, Miss Pattie J., 802 Watts St Durham, N. C.

Gudger, E. W., American Museum of Natural History New York City

*Haber, V. R., Division of Entomology, N. C. Dept. of Agriculture. .Raleigh, N. C.
*Halverson, J. O., N. C. Dept. of Agriculture Raleigh, N. C.

Hatley, C. C Durham, N. C.

Heck, C. M., State College Raleigh, N. C.

Henderson, Archibald, Prof, of Mathematics, Univ. of North Car. . . .Chapel Hill

Hickerson, T. F., Prof, of Civil Engineering, Univ. of North Car Chapel Hill

Hobbs, A. W., Associate Prof, of Mathematics, Univ. of North Car.. .Chapel Hill

Hoffman, Dr. S. W Statesville, N. C.

Holland, Miss Alma, Dept. of Botany, Univ. of North Carohna Chapel Hill

Holmes, J. S., State Forester Chapel Hill

Ives, J. D., Stetson University, Deland, Fla Pine Bluff, N. C.

Ivey, J. E., State College Raleigh, N. C.

*Jones, E. P., Trinity College Durham, N. C.

Kilgore, B. W., Director of Experiment Station Raleigh, N. C.

Krausz, H. B Raleigh, N. C.

*Lake, J. L., Prof, of Physics, Wake Forest College Wake Forest, N. C.

Lasley, J. W., Jr., Assoc. Prof, of Mathematics, Univ. of North Car.. . .Chapel Hill
*Lehman, S. G., State College Raleigh, N. C.

Leiby, R. W., Division of Entomology, N. C. Dept. of Agriculture. .Raleigh, N. C.

Lewis, Dr. R. H Raleigh, N. C.

Lugn, A. L., Dept. of Chemistry and Physics, Lenoir College Hickory, N. C.

Mabee, W. Bruce, Div. of Entomology, N. C. Dept. Agriculture. . .Raleigh, N. C.

MacNider, W. DeB., Kenan Prof, of Pharmacology, LTniv. of N. Car., Chapel Hill

Marion, S. J., Dept. of Chemistry, State College Raleigh, N. C.

Markham, Blackwell, 92 Toxtech St Brookline, Mass.

Mendenhall, Miss Gertrude, 1023 Spring Garden St Greensboro, N. C.

*Metcalf, Z. P., Prof, of Zoology and Entomology, State College. .Raleigh, N. C.

♦Mitchell, T. B., Div. of Entomology, N. C. Dept. Agriculture Raleigh, N. C.

*Nowell, J. W., Wake Forest College Wake Forest, N. C.

♦Patterson, A. H., Professor of Physics, Univ. of North Carohna Chapel Hill

Paull, N. M., Assistant Professor of Drawing, Univ. of North Car.. .Chapel Hill

Pegram, W. H., 308 Buchanan Road Durham, N. C.

Petty, Miss Mary, North Carolina College for Women Greensboro, N. C.

♦Phillips, Charles, Dept. of Pathology, Wake Forest College Wake Forest, N. C.

Pillsbury, J. P., State College Raleigh, N. C.

Plummer, J. K., 499 Courtland St Atlanta, Ga.

♦Poteat, W. L., President Wake Forest College Wake Forest, N. C.

Powell, T. E., Jr., Professor of Biology, Elon College Elon, N. C.

Pratt, J. H., State Geologist Chapel Hill

12 Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

Prouty, W. F., Prof, of Stratigraphic Geology, Univ. of North Car.. .Chapel Hill
*Randolph, E. E., Dept. of Chemistry, State College Raleigh, N. C.

Randolph, E. O College Station, Tex.

Randolph, Mrs. E. O College Station, Te.x.

Rankin, W. S., State Board of Health Raleigh, N. C.

♦Rhodes, L. B., Div. of Chemistry, N. C. Dept. Agriculture Raleigh, N. C.

Robinson, Miss Mary, North Carolina College for Women Greensboro

*Roller, A. F., Science Teacher, Raleigh High School Raleigh, N. C.

Ruffner, R. H., State College Raleigh, N. C.

*Satterfield, G. H., Trinity College Durham, N. C.

Saville, Thorndike, Assoc. Prof, of Engineering, Univ. of North Car., Chapel Hill

Seymour, Miss Mary F., North Carolina College for Women Greensboro

Shaffer, Miss Blanche E., North Carolina College for Women Greensboro

Sherrill, Miss Mary L., North Carolina College for Women Greensboro

Sherrill, Miss Mildred, Science Teacher, Henderson High School, Henderson, N. C.

Sherwin, M. E., State College Raleigh, N. C.

Sherman, Franklin, Entomologist, N. C. Dept. Agriculture Raleigh, N. C.

Shore, C. A., State Laboratory of Hygiene Raleigh, N. C.

*Shunk, I. v., 222 West Morgan St Raleigh, N. C.

Smith, J. E., Iowa State College Ames, Iowa

Smith, M. R., Science Teacher, High School Fort Mill, S. C.

Smith, S. C, Dept. of Chemistry, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill

Smithey, Ira W., Dept. of Chemistry, Univ. of North Carolina Chapel Hill

*Speas, William E., Dept. of Physics, Wake Forest College Wake Forest, N. C.

*Spencer, H., State College Raleigh, N. C.

Stiles, Dr. C. W Wilmington, N. C.

*Stuhlman, Otto, Jr., Assoc. Prof, of Physics, Univ. of North Car Chapel Hill

*Sullivan, R. W., Dept. of Chemistry, Wake Forest College Wake Forest, N. C.

Taylor, C. C, State College Raleigh, N. C.

Taylor, Haywood M., Dept. of Chemistry, Univ. of North Carolina.. .Chapel Hill

*Taylor, W. F., Wake Forest College Wake Forest, N. C.

*Thies, O. J., Jr., Dept. of Chemistry, Davidson College Davidson, N. C.

Totten, H. R., Dept. of Botany, University of North CaroHna Chapel Hill

*Vann, H. M., Dept of Anatomy, Wake Forest College Wake Forest, N. C.

Venable, F. P., Kenan Prof, of Chemistry, Univ. of North Carolina. .Chapel Hill

*Wells, B. W., Dept. of Botany, State College Raleigh, N. C.

*Wells, Mrs. B. W., State College Sta Raleigh, N. C.

*Wheeler, A. S., Profes.sor of Organic Chemistry, Univ. of North Car. . .Chapel Hill

Williams, C. B., State College Raleigh, N. C.

*Williams, J. H., State College Raleigh, N. C.

Williams, L. F., State College Raleigh, N. C.

Wilson, Donald B., Dept. of Farm Crops, State College Raleigh, N. C.

*Wilson, Henry V., Kenan Professor of Zoology, Univ. of North Car., Chapel Hill

nVilson, R. B., Dept. of Biology, Wake Forest College Wake Forest, N. C.

*Wil.son, R. N., Trinity College Durham, N. C.

Winston, Dr. Lula G., Meredith College, 124 E. Edenton St Raleigh, N. C.

Winters, R. Y., State College Raleigh, N. C.

Withers, W. A., Dept. of Chemistry, State College Raleigh, N. C.

1921] Proceedings of the Academy of Science 13

*Wolf, F. A., Plant Pathology, State College Raleigh, N. C.

*Wright, Miss Eva K., North Carolina College for Women Greensboro

Total 133.

The following papers were presented at the meeting:
Age of Insects. Z. P. Metcalf. (Presidential address.) Appears
in full in this issue.

The Genus Raspailia and the Independent Variability of Diagnostic
Features. H. V. Wilson.
Appears in full in this issue.

Current Research in Organic Chemistry at the University of North Caro-
lina. Alvin S. Wheeler.

Active work is being done upon six research problems. First, the
nature of kelp oil from the distillation of kelp, a seaweed in the Pacific
Ocean, is being investigated. Nothing whatever about it is known.
Second, the bromination of 2-Amino-p-cymene yields a mono-bromo
derivative and new compounds derived from it have been prepared.
Third, the chlorination of 2-Amino-p-cymene also yields a chlorine
derivative. The constitution of the two halogen compounds presents
a fine puzzle in orientation. Fourth, further work is being done with
Tribromojuglone as raw material. Fifth, the chlorination of juglone
proceeds differently from the bromination and good results are being
obtained. Sixth, a shorter process of obtaining bromo-amino-cymene
is being sought, by brominating nitrocymene and then reducing. My
assistants in these studies in the same order as the problems above are :
H. M. Taylor, I. W. Smithey, I. V. Giles, T. M. Andrews, P. R. Daw-
son, S. C. Smith.

Some Fungi New to North America or the South. W. C. Coker.

Sirohasidium sanguineum, another species of a rare genus of gelat-
inous fungi which has been known before only from South America,
has been found here. The author has previously reported S. Brefeldi-
anum from Chapel Hill.

A remarkable form of a well known edible mushroom, the early
Pholiota (P. praecox), occurs in Chapel Hill and Raleigh. It is dis-
tinguished by the absence of any visible trace of a veil. This would
entirely mislead one as to its real place in classification, as the veil is
supposC^d to be a generic character.

The only species of the mushroom genus Tricholoma {T. venenata)
that is known to be poisonous was collected at Chapel Hill in the fall

14 Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

of 1919. This has been known before only from Michigan, where it
made seriously ill seven people who ate it.

A peculiar Httle mushroom of the genus Lepiota (L. caeriilescens)
which turns a deep indigo blue all over when it dries has been found
here. It has been known before only from Missouri and Ohio.

Apodachlya hrachynema, a minute l)ut interesting and very rare
mold growing on dead insects in water, has recently been found in
Chapel Hill. It has been reported only once before from America, in
Massachusetts.

Notes on the Oecology and Life History of the Texas Horned Lizard.

J. P. GiVLER.

To appear in full in a later issue.

Artificial Incubation of Turtle Eggs. Bert Cunningham.

Chrysemys picta Herm. is recognized as a good species. C. mar-
ginata Agassiz, C. cinerea Bonnaterre, and C. bellii Gray are all includ-
ed under the specific name of C. cinerea. Chrysemys oregonensis Nut-
tall, is also provisionally included under C. cinerea.

In some of the experiments eggs laid in the usual manner w^ere used,
but the majority of eggs were taken from the uterus. The latter
showed a higher developmental rate. The fundamental requirements
are proper moisture and temperature, and in the case of laid eggs they
must be secured within a few hours of laying. Development may be
stopped by low temperatures for a period of a month at least, and de-
velopment of such eggs seems to proceed in a natural manner when
brought back to a normal temperature.

The artificial incubation allows one to keep a record of the incuba-
tion time and thus secure a more graded series than is possible under
natural conditions. It also makes possible much experimental work
on the rate of development, inhibitors and activators.

Some Considerations in Defense of the General Biology Course. J. P.

GiVLER.

To appear in full in a later issue.

An Interesting Anomaly in the Pulmonary Veins of Man. W. C.

George.

In one of the anomalies found this spring in the anatomical labora-
tory at Chapel Hill the blood from the upper left lobe of the lung was
drained not into the left atrium but into the systemic circulation. A

1921] Proceedings of the Academy of Science 15

vein about a centimeter in diameter emerges from near the middle of
the ventral surface of the upper left lobe and courses directly cephalad
to empty into the left innominate vein. A short distance before it
empties into the innominate this vein receives the accessory hemi-azy-
gos vein. The right pulmonary veins and the pulmonary vein from
the lower left lobe communicate with the left atrium as usual.

Alfred Brown (Anatomical Record, 1913) has show^n that the pul-
monary system in the cat arises from an indifferent splanchnic plexus
in the region of the lung bud. This plexus has venous connections on
the one hand with the sinus venosus and on the other with neighboring
systemic veins (cardinals, segmentals, and others). Conditions simi-
lar to those shown in the anomaly cited apparently arise as a result of
some interference with the return of blood through the pulmonary
portion of the embryonic plexus thus causing both pulmonary and
bronchial blood to enter the bronchial veins and causing their great
enlargement. In this particular case then the large vein draining the
upper left lobe seems to represent the enlarged left bronchial vein and
that portion of the accessory hemi-azygos between the innominate and
the junction of the left bronchial with the accessory hemi-azygos.
Due to the enlargement of the bronchial vein the accessory hemi-
azygos appears to be a side branch of it.

A More Phenomenal Shoot. William F. Prouty.

At the last meeting of the North Carolina Academy of Science Dr.
B. W. Wells described "A Phenomenal Shoot" which grew near Ra-
leigh during the season of 1919. This shoot "grew from the stump of
a beheaded tree of Paidownia tomentosa." The shoot described bj^
Dr. Wells was 7.75 inches in circumference at the base, had 20 inter-
nodes and was 193^ feet in length. This shoot was supposed to have
grown in one season, though this fact was not definitely known.

During the past season the writer has witnessed the development
of a shoot from a tree of the same species cited by Dr. Wells which
surpasses in its dimensions the one above referred to. This shoot
grew during this past season to a height of 21}^ feet. It has a circum-
ference at base of 10 inches and has 24 internodes. One of the leaves,
measured in the latter part of July, was 38 inches in largest dimension.
This shoot grew in a clay-loam soil, residual from granite, on property
adjoining the Campus, in Chapel Hill.

The following papers were read but no copies or abstracts fur-
nished:

16 Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

A Photometric Study of the Fluorescence of Iodine Vapor. W. E. Speas.

Breeding Results from Overwintering Cocoons of the Polyphemus Moth.
C. S. Brimley.

Neiv North Carolina Gall Types. B. W. Wells.

Solid Culture Media with a Wide Range of Hydrogen and Hydroxyl Ion
Concentration. F. A. Wolf and I. V. Shunk.

Judgments of Length, Alass, and Time. A. H. Patterson.

Effects of Desiccation on Cotton Seeds and on the Seed-horrie Element of
Cotton Anthracnose. S. G. Lehman.

Chlorination with the Silent Electrical Discharge. Paul Gross.

The Electron, its Measurements and Applications. J. B. Derieux.

Some Questions Concerning the Teaching of Physics in North Carolina.
C. W. Edwards.

Questions Arising from the Discovery of Occasional Vertebrate Herm-
aphrodites with a Demonstration of a Case in a Pig. Harley N.
Gould.

The Anatomy of Angiopteris. H. L. Blomquist.

Further Studies on the Pure Culture of Diatoms. Bert Cunningham
and J. T. Barnes.

Aphidius, a Parasite of the Cotton Louse. H. Spencer.

Notes on the Salamanders of the Cayuga Lake Basin, N. Y., with Refer-
ence to Eggs and Larvae. Julia Moesel Haber.

A Method of Differentiating Mucous and Serous Cells. Eva Gal-
braith Campbell.

Recent Views on the Nutritive Qualities of Milk. J. 0. Halverson.

Relationship of Temperature and Relative Humidity to the Distribution
of Cockroaches. Vernon R. Haber.

From Egg to Frog in two Months. H. V, Wilson.

The following papers were read by title only, in the absence of

their authors:

On the Polyembryonic Development of the Parasite, Copidosoma gelechiae.
R. W. Leiby.

The Lorentz Transformation in Einstein Relativity. Archibald Hen-
derson.

The Inheritance of Economic Qualities in Cotton. R. Y. Winters.

Notes on Recently Discovered Miocene Whale. William F. Prouty.

The following paper was transferrred to the Chemical and Physical
program :
Ionizing Potentials of Gases by Negative Electrons. A. A. Dixon.

C. S. Brimley, Acting Secretary.

JOHN FRANCIS LANNEAU
1836-1921

A long and variously distinguished career came to a close when
John Francis Lanneau died in Wake Forest, March 5, 1921. He was
born of Huguenot parentage in Charleston, South Carohna, February
7, 1836. His father was Charles Henry Lanneau, his mother, Sophia
Lanneau. He was graduated from the South Carolina Mihtary
Academy in 1856. His teaching career began at once in 1857 as tutor
in mathematics, and from 1858 to 1861 as professor of physics and
chemistry, in Furman University, Greenville, S. C. Then came the
Civil War in which he served four years first as Captain of cavalry in
Hampton's brigade, later as Lieutenant and Captain of engineers.
At the conclusion of the war he resumed his connection with the Fur-
man faculty, being professor of mathematics and astronomy from 1866
through 1868. For the next four years he was professor of mathe-
matics in Wilham Jewell College of Missouri. In 1873 he accepted
the presidency of the Alabama Central Female College, Tuscaloosa,
holding that position for six years. From 1879 to 1888 he was pres-
ident of the Baptist Female College, Lexington, Missouri. The next
two years he was president of the Pierce City Baptist College of the
same state. In 1890 he accepted the professorship of physics and ap-
plied mathematics in Wake Forest College. From 1899 to his death
he was professor of applied mathematics and astronomy.

The honorary degree of M. A. was conferred upon him in 1869 by
Baylor University, LL. D. in 1915 by Furman University.

Of striking physique and courtly bearing Dr. Lanneau won at-
tention and respect wherever he appeared. He was of the finest type
of the Christian gentleman and up to the day of his death was chair-
man of the board of deacons and treasurer of the Wake Forest Bap-
tist Church.

Apart from the immediate tasks of the class room. Dr. Lanneau
showed his deep scientific interest in several ways. He was probably
the first man in North Carolina to give demonstrations and public
lectures on the X-rays. In 1907 he invented the Cosmoid manu-
factured by Wm. Gaertner & Co., of Chicago, and described by him
in "Popular Astronomy," December 1913. It is an ingenious ap-
paratus for illustrating many astronomical conceptions and motions.

[17]

18 John Francis Lanneau [December

It is capable of numerous and easy adjustments. He was an active
member of the North CaroUna Academy of Science and of the Astro-
nomical Society of the Pacific.

A list of his scientific papers is appended:

The Source of the Su7i's Heat. Popular Astronomy 14: 410. 1906. Also pub-
lished in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 22: 45. 1906.

The Sparsity of The Stars. Popular Astronomy 15: 390. 1907.

Sirius, the Bright and Morning Star. Popular Astronomy 19: 393. 1911.

The Cosmoid. Popular Astronomy 21: 613. 1913.

The Sun 's Eclipse of June 8, 1918: Question. Popular Astronomy 26 : 299. 1918.
Also published in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 34: 76. 1918.

Sunspots in July, 1903. Popular Astronomy 11 : 372. 1903.

Physics of Shooting Stars. Popular Astronomy 13 : 434. 1905.

Approaching Sun-Spot Maximum. Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 20. 21. 1903.

Wm. Louis Poteat
Charles E. Brewer,
H. V. Wilson.

JOHN FRANCIS LANNEAU
1836 1921

THE AGE OF INSECTS.
By Z. p. Metcalf

Geologists are in the habit of speaking of this as the "age of man"
or the Psycozoic era. From this stated opinion I wish to dissent, for
this evening at least, and call your attention to the fact that while we
as humans may speak of this egotistically as the "age of man" it is
not the age of man but the age of insects in which we are living. Man
may try to dominate this age but on every hand he finds his efforts
thwarted and at every point he must give way to numerous hordes of
insects whose chief aim seems to be to overthrow the kingdom of man
on this world. The late unpleasantness in Europe is remembered
by our soldiers, not so much as a war on the Boche, as a war on in-
numerable insect pests denominated cooties. And even those of us
who had no chance at first-hand knowledge can sympathize with
the young Canadian who, when he was decorated with some medal or
other for outstripping his fellows in a charge, remarked that his in-
terest in the matter was not in the charge but in the hope that he could
run fast enough and far enough to escape the cooties.

As in war so in peace, on every hand we find our lives circum-
scribed and our efforts limited because of the presence of numerous
insect pests. Our crops, our domesticated animals are increasingly
subjected to their attacks. Our forests are devastated by them. Our
houses and our stores are destroyed by them. Our books and our
paintings are marred by them. Whole regions of the world are prac-
tically unfit for human habitation because of the diseases they carry,
and human want and human suffering abound in all quarters because
of these troublesome httle pests. In fact, they have so adapted them-
selves that it is impossible to think of any relation of human life and
human culture that is not colored in some way by insects, yea even
as pointed out below our very existence is dependent upon them.

It would seem logical, therefore, that anything that touches us so
vitally ought to be pretty well understood. Yet, I believe I am safe
in saying that there is no group of animals so little known, to zoolo-
gists even, as insects. This in spite of the fact that more of our zoolo-
gical literature, each year, is devoted to insects than all other animals
combined. Whole regions of the insect kingdom are still unsurveyed
and, while we know a little about the external anatomy of a few forms,
our knowledge of the internal anatomy is still largely based on the

[19]

20 Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

work of Swammerdam in the seventeenth century, who worked with-
out a compound microscope or a microtome. Our knowledge of the
ecological relations is largely based on superficial studies of the life
histories of isolated species and all the rest is sweeping generalizations
that are almost certain to fail in the acid test of real ecological experi-
ments. Our knowledge of insect vectors of human, animal, and plant
diseases are equally poorly grounded on the knowledge that the tsetse
fly carries sleeping sickness, that the malarial mosquito carries ma-
laria, that the cattle tick (not an insect) carries Texas fever, and a
few other cases from which we generalize often wisely, if not too well.

We are often guilty of orating, sometimes rather loudly, I am
afraid, about the damage done by the gypsy moth, or the boll weevil
or what not, but do we even stop to ask ourselves about the remarkable
interplay of physiological processes between plant and insect or the
ecological relations between the insect and the host of conditions that
surround it? And the echoes answer, "Do we?"

If this then is the condition among our professional zoologists
(I believe entomologists are still regarded as zoologists by the layman,
if not so regarded by his fellow zoologists), what is the condition among
other scientists, and other folks in general, — that great class to which
we scientists refer frequently, and not without condescension, as the
lay minds, as something separate and entirely distinct from our minds
which are denoted as academic minds. It is in the hope that Tmay
be able to educate the lay mind that this paper has been prepared.
And for fear that some of you may miss the drift of my remarks, I
hasten to remind you that you are the lay mind, and to add that I am
not exactly clear as to just why you are the lay mind or just what
makes my mind, entomologically speaking, an academic mind, while
from the standpoint of the chemist or the physicist or the botanist or
what not my mind is removed from its temporary and somewhat in-
secure pedestal and is laid at the base and becomes perforce a lay mind.
Perhaps I would feel just as well and you would have more respect for
what I have to say if I did not inquire too closely into this phase of the
subject but hasten on to tell you something about bugs, as I see that
you are all sitting somewhat breathlessly with open mouths, if not
with open minds, to learn something about this field that we call en-
tomology and about this age that we call the age of insects.

Before I proceed, however, I must warn you that I am not an en-
tomologist, let alone a zoologist, although I believe that is the title

1921] The Age of Insects 21

that is conferred upon me by powers vested in the State of North
Carolina and the government of these United States, but a speciaUst
in an obscure group of insects. I tell you this to defend myself against
the hordes of speciahsts in other groups who may hold up their hands
in holy horror at some of the generalizations that I may make. Now
the specialist is a sort of rare bird whose words are a law unto himself,
at least, and who knows so much about his own pet field that he knows
nothing about anything else and his final defense in all arguments
about his field is, ''Well, I am the specialist in this group. " To which
some of you, who are broadly academically minded if not lay minded,
must feel like exclaiming, "We are thankful for that much at least."
The difference in those things is of course one of degree. For instance
a student of insects is, naturally, an entomologist but a student of
fleas is a Professor of Suctoria, the student of the hind leg of a flea is a
pulicidid morphologist and the student of the hairs on the second joint
of the hind leg of a flea is a speciaUst and I say it reverently, "May
the Lord help him!"

With this rambhng and somewhat generalized introduction, you
will pardon me if I turn your attention to some of the various aspects of
the insect world in order that we may examine them more closely.
Emerson said something to the effect that fools are amazed at the ex-
traordinary and wise men wonder at the ordinary. I shall presume
therefore on your wisdom and use only ordinary examples with which
to paint my picture of the insect world.

The Number of Insects in the World

The possible number of insects in the world has always been a sub-
ject of very great interest to me. I, of course, refer to the number
of kinds or species not to the number of individuals. No one has been
foolhardy enough to make a personal census of insect individuals as yet,
I believe. The nearest approach to this are the statements that mis-
guided sanitarians and others make, sometimes, to the effect that
starting with a single pair of houseflies we would have, by the end of
summer, so many quintillions of flies. We all know this is not true,
save perhaps on a summer afternoon when we are trying vainly to get
our allotted forty winks and all but succeeding because of several of
the above mentioned quintillions that persist in lighting just to the
windward of an upturned nose. Or there is the statement that start-
ing with a single plant louse, with all of her descendants surviving, we

22 Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

would have, in a year or two, a mass of plant lice equal in volume to
our earth. This may or may not be true, but if true a large proportion
of the descendants must fly away to other worlds than ours because
any species is lucky indeed if it ends its fiscal year and balances its
books with a definite increase in numbers over the previous year.

The question of the number of species of insects is, however, an-
other matter. We see, in our text books, estimates of the number of
species of insects in the world, at anywhere from 250,000 to 500,000
and 1,000,000 and recently some one ventured to estimate that there
must be at least 10,000,000 kinds of insects in the world, at the pres-
ent time.

Obviously, in trying to generalize about a group of animals with
such an enormous number of species, one finds himself handicapped
not from lack of material but from its very superabundance.

General Physiology.

Typically, an insect is an arthropodous animal with its body di-
vided into three parts; head, thorax and abdomen, and with three
pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings. Being an arthropod, an
insect carries his skeleton on the outside of his body and as he grows
this skin which is hard and chitinous must be cast off and a new skin
produced to accommodate the larger sized individual. This skeleton
is segmented to provide free movements. Thus various parts have
been separated and since these parts are fairly constant they have
been much used in taxonomy. But their phylogenetic relations are
not always clear and thus a special nomenclature has grown up around
each group which has served to discourage all but the most highly
specialized of the specialists and has acted as a sort of natural selec-
tion, thus cutting down materially the crop of speciahsts, much to the
general benefit of the world at large. With these special parts we
need not concern ourselves here but the generalized parts will bear
closer inspection. The head is largely sensory in function and bears
the compound eyes, simple eyes and antennae. These will be dis-
cussed more in detail under sense organs. The head also bears the
mouth parts which are among the most complicated structures found
in the animal kingdom. Primitively, they consist of no less than
three paired and three unpaired structures. We cannot inquire into
the various morphological variations but the following classification
of the mouth parts of insects based largely on functional grounds will

1921] The Age of Insects - 23

perhaps aid in conveying the complexity of the subject. We have,
as our most generahzed, the chewing insects which are fitted with a
pair of mandibles which tear and masticate food.

A scraping type which lacerates the epidermis of plants and sucks
up the exuding sap.

A piercing type in which the mouth parts are fitted for piercing
the skin of an animal or the epidermis of a plant and sucking the blood
or sap.

A rasping type fitted for rasping off solid particles and dissolving
them in saliva and then sucking up the resultant hquid.

A sponging type in which the mouth parts are fitted for sponging
up exposed liquids.

A siphoning type in which the mouth parts are formed into a long
hollow tube which is usually used to suck up exposed nectar.

A lapping type in which the mandibles are well developed for work-
ing wax and paper or for portage and the other mouth parts are modi-
fied into a tongue which is used to lap up exposed liquids.

The thorax is largely given over to locomotion, which is carried on
by the wings and legs. The insects were without doubt the first ani-
mals to conquer the air and of all animals, birds not even excepted, their
mastery of the air is the most complete. The legs are fitted chiefly
for walking, running, leaping and grasping. The speed of certain of
our insects is indeed remarkable, as is their ability to make surprising
leaps. The world's record for the broad jump is not held by a man
but undoubtedly belongs to the flea. A leap of a hundred times his
length would be no astounding feat for a flea, whereas for man five or
six times his length would be wonderful indeed. In the same way the
muscular strength of insects is almost beyond belief. The weakest
insects according to Plateau can pull five times their own weight, while
the average is more than twenty times, and one of the leaf beetles can
pull forty-two times its own weight. In contrast man cannot pull
his own weight and under the same conditions a horse could pull but
three-quarters of his weight. Some of the insects are able to push one
hundred times their own weight, while the honey bee can carry a load
equal to three-fourths of its bodily weight. These remarkable feats
are accounted for by the small size of the insects and by the greater
advantage in leverage from an external skeleton.

Passing to the internal organs we find time for the discussion o
two systems of organs only. The first of these is the respiratory or

24 • Journal op the Mitchell Society [December

gans or trachea. The insects differ from man in that their circulatory
organs are very poorly developed and their respiratory organs are well
developed to counterbalance this. The insects have no lungs but a
system of trachea or tubes which open to the exterior through minute
pores called spiracles. From the spiracles the trachea branch and re-
branch until they reach all parts of the body. The oxygen is carried
to the cells through these tubes and the carbon dioxide carried away
through the same set.

The nervous system and sense organs of insects are so different from
those of man that we are often at a loss to account for the sensory hfe
of insects. There is in the insects no brain as we find it in the verte-
brates but the nervous functions are distributed to a chain of ganglia
along the ventral wall of the body. There is therefore more or less of
local control for each region of the body. The psychic life of such
animals is therefore rather low and in no way to be compared with
that of man.

The sense organs of insects may be grouped into three classes
(Comstock) :

Mechanical sense organs. — ^Touch and hearing.

Chemical sense organs. — Taste and smell.

Organs of sight.

Touch organs are generally distributed over the body and need no
special discussion. Organs of hearing are apparently not universally
present. They occur among the singing orthoptera and in mosquitoes
and perhaps in bees, but whether they occur in other forms is by no
means clear. In the grasshopper the ears are located on the first seg-
ment of the abdomen, but in the katydids and crickets they occur on
the tibia of the fore legs. In the mosquitoes they undoubtedly occur
on the antennae, as the antennae are provided with whorls of setae
which gradually decrease in length from the base of the antennae out-
ward. It has been demonstrated that these setae vibrate to notes of
different pitch and it is believed that the vibrations are transferred to
the nerve endings. Most beekeepers believe that bees can hear be-
cause they make such different hums under different circumstances,
and even an amateur can tell the difference between the ])usy hum,
the swarming hum, and the angry hum of an outraged bee.

The chemical senses of insects are very poorly understood. This
is due in part to the wide distribution of these organs over the body
and to the fact that several different types of sense organs are fre-
quently closely associated. We say that insects taste because we

1931] The Age of Insects 25

know they make selections in foods, and we say bees smell because
they seem to be able to distinguish members of their own colony from
other bees, and they seem to be able to recognize their queen and to
distinguish drones.

The sense of sight in insects is taken care of by two distinct types
of eyes, the simple eyes and the compound eyes. The former we be-
lieve is used chiefly to distinguish light from darknees while the latter
is used to give an image. The compound eyes of insects are composed
of from a few to many hundreds of hexagonal prisms, called ommatid-
ia. It is believed that each ommatidium forms a portion of the
image just as tiles are put together to form a mosaic. Or, since the
ommatidia are hexagonal in shape, perhaps we can best compare the
image that insects receive to the image our eyes receive when we look
through a piece of glass which has been laid down on poultry netting.
Each mesh of the poultry netting would contribute its portion to the
image just as each ommatidium of the insect's compound eye does.
Obviously such an eye is better adapted to seeing motion than it is
to seeing distinct images.

Insect Psychology.

I wish I had the agile mind and the facile pen of a Fabre so that I
would be able to unfold for you some of the beauties of the instincts
of insects. We may see striking illustrations on every hand. Why
do certain insects always lay their eggs in such situations that their
young will find an abundance of food at hand? This question is of
course easy to answer in the cases of those insects whose adults feed
on the same plants as the young. It is simply a matter of placing
them in the most convenient place; but we are confronted with the
query, why do some of these insects take such elaborate pains to con-
ceal their eggs by placing them in the stems of plants or imbedding
them in the tissues of the leaves? On the other hand we are confronted
by that vast host of adult insects which lay their eggs on food plants or
animal hosts upon which they themselves do not feed. Or we are con-
fronted by that compHcated set of reactions, so well illustrated by our
solitary wasp, where a nest is constructed and prey is searched out and
stung in the precise spot to paralyze the individual but not cause its
death. Then the prey is dragged back to the nest and stored with
an egg and the nest closed and concealed. Or we see an insect like the
cornfield ant taking the eggs of the corn and cotton root louse into its

26 Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

nest and storinj^ them through the winter, shifting their position in its
tunnels with the changes of the temperature so that it will not be in-
jured, then hatching the egg in the sun in the spring and placing the
young nymph on the proper food plant. All this in order that the
ants' descendants may have an abundant supply of honey dew for
their nourishment. What are the mental processes of the eumenes
wasp as it fashions the clay into pottery of the most charming design —
a design so artistic that man has copied it as his very own. What arc
the mental processes of the tiny caterpillars as they weave their mar-
velous gossamer threads and become the earth's first aeronauts?
What are the fungus ants thinking about as they prepare a fertile field
and sow upon it the spores of a certain species of fungus in order that
their children may have an abundance of food? What of the mental
processes of the scarab as it rolls its ball of dung often many weary in-
sect miles in order to provision its nest for its larva? Why does each
species of scarab store its nest with the clung of certain animals only?
What is the psychological process of the queen bee that causes her to
lay only unfertilized eggs in drone cells? What are the slave-making
ants "thinking about" when they make a raid on the nest of another
species, kill the adults, kidnap the larvae and pupae, carrying them
away to their nests where they are raised to adults to serve their cap-
tors?

We see these questions about us every day and we ask the question
"Why?" and we reply very wisely with the magical word "instincts."
Which is a very learned and very scientific way of saying that we
know nothing about it.

In ordinary speech, the word "instinct" stands for all the heredi-
tary and automatic revelations of activity, from simple tropisms to the
most complicated outward manifestations of individual memory. In-
stinctive acts are stereotyped, being ever the same when responding
to stimuli of the same nature, and almost always adapted to their ob-
ject, although not resulting from previous experience on the part of the
individual. To define them more precisely is impossible for they are
varied and complex, overlapping one another and often becoming so
confused as to render difficult the tracing of their limits. Neverthe-
less, we should not place them all on the same level and attribute to
them all a common origin. Tropic reactions are due to the properties
of living matter, rhythms presuppose an organic memory and hence
a period of education, ancient or recent; but this apprenticeship is
purely mechanical and dependent upon the stimuli that produce it.

1921] The Age of Insects 27

Apprenticeship has its part also in those manifestations of mem-
ory belonging to the species which play such an important part in the
behavior of arthropods. This kind of memory presents a character
of distinct superiority, inasmuch as it was made effective for the
race by the distant ancestors of the individual in the guise of a choice
between the various possible responses of differential susceptibility.
Choice, of a remarkably intellectual nature, is even more noticeable
in the instinctive manifestations of individual memory. The animal,
endowed with well-developed senses and nervous system, not only re-
acts to new necessities by new acts, but associates the stored impres-
sions of new sensations and thereby appropriately directs its further
activities. Thus, by an intelligent process, new habits are estabUshed
which by heredity become part of the patrimony of instinct modifying
the latter and constituting elements essential to its evolution. Of
these instincts acquired through an intelligent apprenticeship Forel
was led to say that they are reasoning made automatic and it is to
them particularly that we may apply the idea of certain biologists
that instincts are habits which have become hereditary and automatic.
Probably all superior instincts at first had this intellectual quality.
This certainly is true of all such as originated from more or less slowly
acquired habits; it seems to be the rule as well with instincts due to
mutations. It stands to reason that, whether they result from a sud-
den psychic change or from a sudden organic modification, these in-
stincts must always be preceded by some intelligent period of educa-
tion, during which they become perfected, in order to be handed on to
posterity and to assume the character of true instincts.

Here, then, we are confronted with several classes of instinctive
acts, which differ not only in origin l)ut also in intellectual characteris-
tics. No doubt they are linked together by many intermediate mani-
festations, and in the animals with which we are now concerned they
often blend the one with the other or even with the reflexes, on ac-
count of the profound differentiation of nervous and sensorial centers.
It is, nevertheless, very difficult to consider them as manifestations of
a special faculty which we would fain place on the level of intelligence
by calling it instinct. The name instinct justly applies to certain
forms of activity which are innate and automatic, but these forms pro-
ceeded in diverse ways from the vital energy which is the source of all
organic activity, and the highest of them, which are at the same time
the most striking ones in the animals here studied, were originally acts
more or less requiring the exercise of true intelligence on the part of

28 Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

sjiocies and individuals. Intelligence has no part in the development
of the instinct that draws nocturnal Lepidoptera toward the light,
nor has it doubtless anything to do with the rhythms through which
organic memory manifests itself. But intelligence it is that regulates
by appropriate selection all manifestations of race memory; intelli-
gence again in the sundry forms of association and individual memory,
that puts together the most complicated mechanisms of instinct.

Instincts are of various kinds. If, by the word instinct we under-
stand not any one special faculty but the complex of all the instincts,
namely, the innate automatism regardless of its origin, we can say
with Bergson that instinct and intelligence "are not things belonging
to one and the same order, " that they "diverge in direct ratio of their
development," but that "they never become completely separate."
They are both "opposites and complements" and they assist one
another. "On the one hand, indeed, the most perfect instincts of the.
insects are accompanied by certain gleams of intelligence, be it only
in the choice of place, time or material of construction. When by ex-
ception bees build their nest in the open they invent arrangements
which are new and in the true sense intelligent to meet the new con-
ditions. On the other hand, intelligence has still more use for instinct
than instinct has for intsUigence, since the ability to work up raw
material presupposes in the animal a superior grade of organization, to
which it could have arisen on the wings of instinct only." Before
such evidence as this Fabre was forced to modify his theory of immu-
table instinct. "By itself, mere instinct," says he, "would leave the
insect disarmed in the perpetual conflict of circumstances. A guide
is needed in the midst of this bewildering melee. That the insect has
such a guide is evident to a high degree. This is the second domain
of its psychic powers. Here it is conscious and susceptible of perfect-
ing by experience. As I dare not designate this rudimentary aptitude
by the name of intelligence, a title too noble for it, I shall call it dis-
cernment." But is discernment in this sense not really a form of in-
telligence?

Such is the measure in which instinct and intelligence are com-
bined in animals. If, following Bergson, we admit that consciousness
"is proportional to the power of selection at the animal's disposal,"
it will be quite evident that consciousness must be particularly ob-
scured in all purely instinctive acts, but that on the contrary it must
accompany all intelligent acts. Bergson, however, regards con-
sciousness in a peculiar light, since he considers it as "life projected

1921] The Age of Insects 29

through matter," as the common source from which sprang in different
directions both instinct and intelligence. This view leads us away
from the commonly accepted theory that consciousness must be con-
sidered as that inmost luminary which enlightens our actions. It is
possible, even probable, that this kind of consciousness exists to a
greater or lesser extent in the animals. However, we can not know
anything about it, and we believe with Ed. Claparede that "the science
of animal psychology may and must scrutinize the problem of the
greater or less intelligence of animals without being concerned about
their consciousness."

We discern intelligence in its simplest expression wherever we
notice a choice between the various alternatives offered by circum-
stances, and in one of its highest forms wherever we observe that pow-
er of invention which, according to Bergson, enables the human race
to "manufacture artificial objects, more particularly to make tools
with which to make other tools and to vary their fabrication indefi-
nitely. " These two extreme forms are naturally connected by a
series of links, and we know that the one as well as the other plays a
part in the behavior of arthropods. The latter of the two seems, how-
ever, to be rather exceptional in our group, showing itself only in the
primitive state consisting of the use of foreign bodies as implements.
The tool used by Ammophila is a small stone with which the female rams
and packs the dirt that closes her burrow. With certain ants of
India {Oecophylla sinaragdina) and of Brazil {C am/ponotus texter) the
instrument consists of the larva of the species itself. Held between
the mandibles of the workers, these larvae, by means of their thread,
glue and fasten edge to edge the leaves of which the nest is constructed.
The implement of the crabs, of the genus Melia, in the Indo-Pacific
seas, is supplied by a delicate sea-anemone. This is held between the
pincers of the animal, which probably uses the nettling exudations to
paralyze its prey.

Facts of this nature are rare in the world of arthropods, but they
have an important significance. The use of the little stone is not yet
a fixed habit wdth Ammophila, it belongs only to certain individuals
more highly endowed than others and is perhaps only accidental even
with them. Maybe it will finally pass into the instinctive habits of
the species; for the present it belongs to the domain of individual in-
telligent acts. The crabs of the genus Melia are already farther ad-
vanced, all the species carry anemones and all exhibit a curious modi-
fication of the pincers, the fine teeth having become elongated and

30 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Decemhe

needlelike so as to give them a better hold on their guest and tool.
That they are adapted to the latter is evident, yet this adaptation is
not such that the crab is likely to be in serious danger when it has not
its Actinia. Many of the Melias brought back by explorers are not
provided with anemones, and we may believe that the presence of
this implement guest is not yet of vital importance to the species of
this peculiar genus. The case of the ants which use their larvae as
needles is quite different. With them this singular habit is innate
and specific. Though probably acquired through intelligent acts, it
now belongs entirely to the domain of instinct in the species among
which it prevails. And thus we always come back to that predominat-
ing fact of the psychological history of arthropods, namely, the trans-
formation of intelligent acts into instinctive acts. The following con-
siderations formulated by Bergson eminently apply to this group:

Among animals, invention is never more than a variation on the
theme of routine. Locked up as it is within the habits of its species,
the animal succeeds no doubt in broadening these by individual ini-
tiative; but its escape from automatism is momentary only, just long
enough to create a new automatism; the gates of its prison close as
soon as they are opened; dragging the chain merely lengthens it.
Only with man does consciousness break the chain.

Man occupies the topmost place in the scale of vertebrates, for,
breaking the bonds of instinct he insures thereby the complete expan-
sion of his intellect. Insects especially Hymenoptera hold the same
dominating position in the scale of arthropods where they are the
highest achievement of instinctive life. These two groups represent
the actual extremes of the two paths followed by psychic evolution in
the Animal Kingdom; the arthropods are going toward instinct, the
vertebrates toward intelligence. These two courses are quite op-
posite, but why have they diverged? At the beginning of their evolu-
tion, during that far distant epoch when they were differentiating
along four main lines (echinoderms, moUusks, arthropods, and verte-
brates), animals were threatened by a great danger — "an obstacle"
says Bergson, "that doubtless almost checked the progress of animal
life. There is a peculiarity which we can not help being struck by
when we glance at the Paleozoic fauna. The moUusks at that